Hypocrisy and Divine Religion

Translation of Chapter Sixteen by Sadeq Khademi

Chapter Sixteen: The Non-Historical Nature of the Holy Scripture

Section 1: The Earliest Historical Account of Jesus

The first historiographical account of Jesus Christ appears in the book Antiquities of the Jews by Josephus Flavius (37–circa 100 CE).
Written around 94 CE, Josephus, a Hellenized Jew, states in a single passage:
“Around that time, there lived a man named Jesus, a holy figure, though it is difficult to fundamentally call him human.
He performed wonders and miracles and taught the people.
He was a teacher of the masses and joyfully apprehended the truth.
Many Jews and Greeks followed and adored him, loving him dearly.
This man was the Christ.
The group named Christians after him has not yet vanished.”
The authenticity of this passage is debated, with some considering it an interpolation or forgery.
Karl Kautsky (1854–1937), a German philosopher and leading figure in orthodox Marxism, argues in his book Foundations of Christianity that this passage was added by Christian scribes.
In fact, no historian provides a direct account of Jesus.

Section 2: Lack of Historical Documentation

Jesus, the Christian religion, and the Gospels lack recorded and documented historical evidence to be considered historical from the perspective of historical scholarship.
Therefore, a historical Jesus cannot be narrated historically.
The only exception is referring to the Quranic account of Jesus.
This is credible because the infallible Imams (peace be upon them) have explicitly affirmed the authority and truthfulness of consulting the Quran.

Section 3: Earliest Gospel Manuscripts

The oldest manuscript copies of the Gospels date to the third century CE.
In the extant books from the first century CE, there are quotations from the Old Testament.
However, no quotations from the New Testament appear in these texts.

Section 4: The Christian Bible and Its Authority

The Christian Bible is the ultimate source of understanding, judgment, and rational faith.
It is considered immune to criticism.
Christianity is founded and validated upon the Bible.
The Epistles of the Apostles state:
“The Holy Scripture is inspired by God.
It is divinely inspired and a revelation from God to humanity.
It is infallible and serves as the authoritative basis for faith and conduct.”
By inspiration, it is meant that the Scripture is directly attributed to God’s essence and authored by the Lord Himself.
The Bible is the word of God, and God’s word has become the Holy Scripture.

Section 5: Divine Inspiration and Infallibility

Although the Bible was not written or authored by Jesus himself, it comprises various writings.
In the view of the Church and the Christian theological community, the Old Testament, written by Jewish scribes before Jesus, and the New Testament, penned by apostles after him, are free from distortion or deviation.
This is due to the guidance of the Holy Spirit bestowed upon the scribes.
All official Church writings are considered the word of God, sacred, and the sole source of faith.

Section 6: The New Testament as Divine Guidance

The New Testament serves as a model through which the Church and the divine institution articulate God’s guidance for all eras.
The Bible consists of two parts: the Old Testament and the New Testament.
This nomenclature stems from the Christian belief that God made two covenants with humanity.
The first, an ancient covenant, was established through prophets before Jesus.
This covenant offered a degree of salvation through promises, warnings, law, and divine legislation.
God initially spoke to humanity through the Mosaic Law and made a covenant.
In a new covenant, God manifested Himself through Jesus Christ, who became human.
Thus, Jesus is both the Son of God and, being of God’s essence, God Himself.
He is also human, deriving his body from his mother.
He is both fully divine, equal to the Father, and fully human, subordinate to the Father, intertwined in essence.

Section 7: The New Covenant and Salvation

In the new covenant, salvation is achieved through love.
The Son of God, incarnated as human, takes upon Himself the sins of humanity.
Through sacrifice, enduring the suffering of the cross, and self-offering, He triumphs over sin.
The part of the Bible addressing the ancient covenant is called the “Old Testament.”
The part addressing the new covenant is called the “New Testament.”

Section 8: Composition of the Bible

The New Testament was written in Greek.
The Bible comprises a total of 66 books: 39 in the Old Testament and 27 in the New Testament.
The New Testament is divided into four thematic sections:
a) The Four Gospels.
b) Acts of the Apostles.
c) Epistles of the Apostles.
d) Revelation of John.

Section 9: Nomenclature and Canonization

In English, the Bible is called *Bible*, derived from the Greek word *Biblia*, meaning “books.”
In Latin, it is referred to as *Scripture*, meaning “writing.”
Athanasius, a Christian theologian, compiled the 27 books of the New Testament in 367 CE.
Thirty years later, the Church Council in Carthage, based on established criteria, confirmed these 27 books.
They were deemed divinely inspired, religious, consistent with each other, and authentic.
They were written by apostles or their close associates.
They are considered sacred, canonical, lawful, and official, meeting the criteria for recognition.

Section 10: The Bible as Divine Revelation

The Bible is a special and unique revelation for knowing God.
However, the path of general revelation for knowing God remains open.
God has revealed Himself in the sacred word.
Through the Bible, the infinite God has made Himself manifest, unveiled, and accessible to finite humanity.
Humanity attains knowledge of God through divine revelation.
This is not achieved through human reason or philosophical inquiry.
One must seek this knowledge with humility, sincerity, earnest effort, and obedience.
One must avoid pride and arrogance to attain it.

Section 11: Spiritual Significance of the Bible

The Bible is spiritual nourishment and a life-giving source for spiritual existence.
Those who do not engage with the Bible have a dead inner self.
Their spirit is empty and deprived of God’s grace and spiritual gifts.
They drag their soul in ignominy, crucified by ignorance and enslaved by sin.
The Gospel of Matthew states:
“Man does not live by bread alone, but by every word that proceeds from the mouth of God.”

Section 12: The Gospels

The term *Gospel*, from Greek, originally means “good news” or “glad tidings” of salvation through Jesus’ death and resurrection.
It does not refer to a book revealed to Jesus.
The Gospels are four books in the New Testament.
Each narrates the life of Jesus from a distinct perspective.
Thus, the Gospels are not revelations sent to Jesus.
They are revelations of the Holy Spirit to his apostles and disciples.
Jesus’ teachings were oral.
He did not produce a written book.
Since Jesus did not compile a book and his disciples expected his imminent return, they believed he would bring the Holy Scripture upon his return.
However, after two generations passed without his return, they began collecting and recording Jesus’ oral traditions.
Many of Jesus’ companions wrote down his biography and oral sayings.
These writings were called *Gospel*, meaning good news, glad tidings, or joyful announcement.
Gradually, four Gospels gained official recognition.
Other Gospels were deemed apocryphal and abandoned.

Section 13: The Canonical Gospels

The Church considers the four Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John as “divine revelation.”
This implies that Christianity is not based on Jesus’ revelation but on the writings and actions of Christian apostles and disciples, particularly Paul and the disciples’ disciples.
The first three Gospels, especially in their emphasis on monotheism, exhibit greater harmony and consistency.
For this reason, they are called “Synoptic Gospels,” meaning “comprehensive,” “harmonious,” “aligned,” or “sharing a common perspective.”
The four Gospels, in chronological order, are Mark, Matthew, Luke, and John.
– **Gospel of Mark**: The oldest and shortest, it focuses on Jesus’ biography and miracles.
It contains fewer of Jesus’ sermons and teachings.
All content in Mark appears in Matthew and Luke, though with less detail.
Mark is historically prior to the others.
It likely dates to the 60s CE (circa 65–70 CE).
Mark was a disciple and collaborator of Paul, the son of a disreputable woman.
Jesus led him to repentance.
– **Gospel of Matthew**: It covers Jesus’ biography and sermons, referencing Old Testament prophecies.
Matthew was a tax collector for the Roman government and a disciple.
Its aim is to convert Jews to Christianity.
It may have been derived from Mark, with Matthew expanding and elaborating.
Its composition dates to 80–90 CE.
– **Gospel of Luke**: It details Jesus’ biography and sermons with an emphasis on specifics.
Luke was a physician and friend of Paul.
Composed in the late first century CE, its goal is to convert polytheists.
It portrays Jesus as compassionate and a savior.
– **Gospel of John**: The latest Gospel, it emphasizes Jesus’ superhuman nature and divinity as the Son of God.
Written in Greek, it presents Jesus as the eternal Word and divine wisdom incarnated.
It is the primary source of Christian theology and philosophy, aiming for emotional faith.
John was a disciple and witnessed Jesus’ crucifixion.
Unlike the Synoptic Gospels, which describe Jesus’ ministry as lasting one year in Galilee, John states it lasted three years in Judea.

Section 14: Jesus’ Mission in the Gospels

The Gospel of Matthew states:
“Jesus said, ‘I have come to fulfill the religions.’”
Christians fully agree that both the Old and New Testaments are the Bible, the word of God, and divine revelation.
They believe it has reached them through an unbroken chain of transmission.
Jesus told his disciples:
“What I tell you in darkness, proclaim in the light.
What you hear whispered, preach from the rooftops.
Do not fear those who kill the body but cannot revive the soul.
Fear Him who can destroy both soul and body in hell.”
All Christians believe the current Gospels are the biography and sayings of Jesus.
They are the word of the Holy Spirit, written by Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John.
The New Testament can be examined from three perspectives: type of writing, authors, and historical period.

Section 15: Non-Canonical Gospels

Besides the four canonical Gospels, there are numerous other Gospels.
These are considered dubious, secondary, semi-canonical, or apocryphal.
They are deemed non-canonical and are not part of the Bible.
The Church views them as heretical or misleading.
Among the non-canonical Gospels is the Gospel of Marcion.
It is based on Gnostic theology, a Hellenized form of Christianity.
The Greek term *Gnosis* means attaining truth or mystical knowledge.
Marcion, an extreme Hellenophile and anti-Semite, analyzed the principle of evil through dualism.
He posited two deities: a good God and an evil God.
He identified the evil God and Satan as “Yahweh,” the God of the Old Testament.
He considered Yahweh the creator of the universe and responsible for Adam’s fall.
Thus, Marcion rejected the Old Testament.
His good God, associated with the New Testament, played no role in creating the world or humanity.
This God created invisible beings.
Intending to save humanity from the evil God, the good God incarnated as Jesus.
He descended to earth and abolished the laws of the prophets.
Through compassion, he saved the spiritual realm.
The Catholic Church considers Marcion a heretic.
The main Gnostic organization owes much to Marcion’s efforts.
Entry into the Gnostic mystical circle required initiation rituals.
Gnostics recognized three ranks: spirituals, psychics, and materialists.
Spirituals were filled with God’s light.
Through mystical knowledge, they achieved liberation from darkness without good deeds.
Psychics possessed some of God’s light but required good deeds for liberation.
Materialists lacked God’s light.
Their fate was to rise from dust and return to dust.
Another apocryphal Gospel is the Gospel of the Hebrews.
It portrays Jesus as a great prophet.
It was used by those who rejected Jesus’ divinity.
Another non-canonical Gospel is attributed to Joseph (Barnabas).
He was from the tribe of Levi and a Jewish priest.
Male descendants of Levi were dedicated to religious duties.
His Gospel is not considered sacred or authoritative.

Section 16: Acts of the Apostles

The Acts of the Apostles comprises 21 letters written by Christian apostles.
These were addressed to Christian communities and individuals of their era.
Over time, these letters gained significance and were included in the New Testament.
The first 13 letters are attributed to Paul.
The rest are from James, Peter, John, and an unknown author.
The authenticity of these epistles has been questioned and deemed unreliable.
The divine and salvific Christ and the complex Christian theology are products of Paul’s thought and efforts.
Paul never met Jesus as his teacher.
He had a history of intense opposition to Christianity.
In the Acts of the Apostles, descriptions of the resurrection and judgment day include:
“The sun will turn to darkness and the moon to blood before the great day of the Lord’s manifestation.”
“In a moment, in the twinkling of an eye, at the sound of the final trumpet.
The trumpet will sound, and the dead will rise incorruptible.”
“The day of the Lord will come like a thief.
The heavens will vanish with a great noise.
The elements will melt and disintegrate.”

Section 17: The Book of Revelation

The Book of Revelation, attributed to John, is highly significant for Christians.
It heralds the progress of Christianity.

Section 18: The Old Testament

The Old Testament represents a covenant God made with humanity.
It obligates adherence to divine law.
Its symbol is circumcision, established with Abraham.
Moses renewed and reinforced it.
Jews believe God made only this single covenant of law with humanity.
Thus, the Jewish Bible consists solely of the Old Testament, which they call the Covenant.
The term “Old Testament” was coined by non-Jews, particularly Christians, to distinguish it from the New Testament.
Christians believe in both covenants.
The Gospel of John states:
“Jesus Christ considered the entire Old Testament as divinely inspired.
It cannot be annulled.”

Section 19: Scope of Salvation

A key difference between the New and Old Testaments lies in the scope of salvation.
In the Old Testament, God’s salvation focuses on the Israelites.
In the New Testament, salvation through Jesus becomes universal.
It encompasses all nations across all eras, from Adam and Eve to future generations until the Day of Judgment.
A religion intended to save Judea and elevate Jews to kingship was universalized through Jewish engineering and manipulation.

Section 20: The Jewish Bible (Tanakh)

Jews call their Bible *Tanakh*.
They consider it divinely inspired.
Part of this book is the Torah.
Jews believe every word of the Torah is authored by God.
It is divinely sacred, revealed to Moses.
It was compiled by the Great Assembly (*Keneset ha-Gedolah*).

Section 21: Contents of the Old Testament

The Old Testament includes the following books:
The Torah, prophetic writings, wisdom literature, prayers, poetry, and prophetic predictions.

Section 22: Absence of Afterlife in the Old Testament

Remarkably, the Old Testament contains no reference to belief in the afterlife, paradise, or hell.
All focus is on this world.
Even the divine paradise is envisioned in this material world.
It is to be established after the appearance of the promised Messiah.
The Old Testament emphasizes the survival of the Israelite state, security, and a peaceful life for Jews.

Section 23: Oldest Old Testament Manuscript

The oldest complete Old Testament manuscript dates to around 900 CE.
It was produced by Jewish scribes known as Masoretes.
It is called the Masoretic Text due to their efforts.
Its authenticity is supported by the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1947 CE.
These scrolls contain the Book of Isaiah, Samuel, Habakkuk, and fragments of other Old Testament books.
Known as the Qumran manuscripts, they closely resemble the Masoretic Text.
Most differences between the two are due to stylistic variations and the thousand-year gap, not content or meaning.

Section 24: The Torah

The Torah, a Hebrew term meaning “law,” is also called the divine legislation.
Jews believe it was given by Yahweh to Moses.
Historians attribute its composition to the Achaemenid period, with multiple authors.
The Torah begins with the creation of the world.
It covers events after Moses’ death.
It concludes with Moses’ passing.
The Torah contains 5,845 verses and 187 chapters.
It was composed over 40 years (2448–2488 Hebrew calendar) by Moses for the Israelites.
The Hebrew calendar begins with the creation and Adam’s formation.
In 1402 AH (2023 CE), the Hebrew timeline spans 5,784 years.
To convert Hebrew to Gregorian dates, subtract 3,760 years.
Thus, Moses, according to Jewish tradition, lived around the 13th century BCE.
Jews insist, through historical distortions, on presenting themselves as the first and final divine religion.
God’s covenant with the Israelites on Mount Sinai and the granting of the law occurred around 1250 BCE.

Section 25: Preservation of the Torah

Moses wrote the Torah in 13 copies.
Twelve were entrusted to the leaders of the twelve tribes of Israel.
One scroll was placed in the Ark of the Covenant.
Thus, the Torah’s authenticity was preserved through all eras.

Section 26: Historical Authenticity of the Tanakh

The historical accuracy of the Tanakh’s narratives has been entirely rejected by some scholars.
No archaeological evidence or ancient Egyptian records support Moses or the Torah’s mythological accounts.
It is claimed that the original Torah copies were collected and destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar.
The current version was orally compiled after Cyrus conquered Babylon around 457 BCE.
It is deemed inauthentic.
The Jewish homeland was devastated by Nebuchadnezzar around the 6th century BCE (597 BCE).
He took some Jews captive to Babylon in Mesopotamia.
They remained in Babylonian captivity until Cyrus conquered Babylon in 538 BCE.
He freed the Jews, many of whom migrated to Persia.

Section 27: Structure of the Torah

The Torah comprises five books (*Sefarim*):
a) *Book of Genesis (Bereshit = Creation)*: Covers the creation, Adam and Eve, their expulsion from Eden after eating from the Tree of Knowledge, their descendants, Noah’s flood, and events related to Abraham (circa 1900 BCE), Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph’s death (circa 1550 BCE).
b) *Book of Exodus (Shemot = Departure from Egypt)*: Narrates Moses’ birth, mission, and the Israelites’ exodus from Egypt.
c) *Book of Leviticus (Vayikra = Priestly Laws)*: Contains regulations for priests, descendants of Aaron from the tribe of Levi, Jacob’s son.
d) *Book of Numbers (Bamidbar = Census)*: Details the census of the Israelites, their prophets, laws, and history.
e) *Book of Deuteronomy (Devarim = Repetition of Laws)*: Repeats laws from previous books and chronicles Israelite history until Moses’ death.

Section 28: The Ten Commandments

The “Ten Commandments” (*Aseret HaDibrot*) in the Torah are as follows:
I am Yahweh, your God, who brought you out of Egypt, from the house of slavery.
– You shall have no other gods besides Me.
– Do not make for yourself any carved image of what is in the heavens above, the earth below, or the waters beneath.
Do not bow to them or worship them.
For I, your God, am a jealous God, punishing the sins of the fathers upon the children to the third and fourth generations of those who hate Me.
I show mercy to thousands of generations of those who love Me and keep My commandments.
– Do not take the name of Yahweh, your God, in vain.
Yahweh will not hold guiltless those who misuse His name.
– Remember the Sabbath day to keep it holy.
Work six days and complete all your tasks.
The seventh day is the Sabbath of Yahweh, your God.
Do no work on it—you, your son, your daughter, your servant, your maid, your livestock, or the stranger within your gates.
For in six days, Yahweh made the heavens, earth, sea, and all within them.
He rested on the seventh day.
Thus, Yahweh blessed the seventh day and sanctified it.
– Honor your father and mother.
Your days will be long in the land Yahweh, your God, gives you.
– Do not murder.
– Do not commit adultery.
– Do not steal.
– Do not bear false witness against your neighbor.
– Do not covet.
Do not covet your neighbor’s house, wife, servant, maid, ox, donkey, or anything that belongs to them.
The tenth commandment encompasses all others.
No other commandment can be reduced to it alone.
Covetousness and greed pertain to the inner life.
They are not subject to judicial prosecution.
Yet, they are the root of all suffering and rebellion.

Section 29: Prophetic Books

The prophetic books include Joshua, Judges, Ruth, First Samuel, Second Samuel, First Kings, Second Kings, First Chronicles, Second Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther.
This section, called the historical books, covers Israelite history up to the 5th century BCE.
This is according to Jewish claims, which aim to present themselves as the first religious people.
Esther (*Ishtar*), a beautiful and politically astute Jewish woman, married Xerxes and became queen of Persia.
Like other historical figures, legends have been woven around her.
It is said she prevented a decree to massacre Jews across the empire.
She enabled Jewish dominance over non-Jews.
Her tomb in Hamadan is a Jewish pilgrimage site.

Section 30: Wisdom, Prayers, and Poetry

This section includes Job, Psalms, Proverbs of Solomon, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Songs (Solomon’s Songs).

Section 31: Prophetic Predictions

The prophetic predictions comprise 17 books: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel, Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi.
These are prophets of the Israelites.
Jews believe in prophethood, viewing a prophet as a foreteller.
The emergence of prophets, known as *Nevi’im* in Hebrew, dates to a thousand years before Christ.
They had hearts filled with love for the one Yahweh.
These prophets lived during the Israelites’ exile.
Often in isolation, they awaited the *Messiah*, the savior and hope of the hopeful.
Israelite prophets foretold that when the world is filled with evil, a trumpet will sound.
The Messiah will appear as a “just judge” and “king of peace.”
A divine being in human form, he will judge all humanity.
The righteous will dwell with him, and sinners will be cast into hell.
The Messiah will rebuild Jerusalem.
Jews endured hardships with faith in the Messiah’s coming.
John the Baptist, by the Jordan River, heralded the Messiah’s imminent arrival.
He urged people to abandon oppression and repent.
Crowds came to John, repented, and were baptized in the Jordan.
Among them was Jesus of Nazareth, John’s disciple.
Jesus encouraged righteousness and trustworthiness.
Jewish clerics opposed them.
They beheaded John and, per Jewish accounts, crucified the king, thwarting Jesus.

Section 32: Prophecy Concerning Elam

In the Book of Jeremiah, a prophecy about Elam, part of modern-day Iran, states:
“I will set My throne in Elam and destroy its king and princes.
But the Lord says: In the latter days, I will restore the captives of Elam.” (Jeremiah 38:45–39).
The Old Testament exalts the Persians.

Section 33: The Talmud

*Talmud*, in Hebrew, means “teaching.”
The Talmud, or oral Torah (*Halakha*), is a vast book containing Jewish traditions and laws.
The Talmud is highly significant for Christians.
It interprets the first part of the Christian Bible, the Old Testament.
Jews believe divine revelation ceased around four centuries before Christ with Moses’ death.
It will resume with the Messiah’s advent.
Thus, the Talmud is an interpretation and commentary on divine revelation, not revelation itself.
Divine revelation is exclusive to the Torah, the flawless word of Yahweh (*the Existing One*, God).

Section 34: Ezra, the Scribe

When Jews were exiled to Babylon, a group called *Sofer* (scribes) dedicated themselves to copying the Torah.
Torah transcription was an act of Jewish patriotism.
The most prominent scribe was Ezra (*Uzair*), who lived in the 5th century BCE.
He is perhaps the greatest Jewish figure after Moses.
It is said that if Moses had not preceded him at Mount Sinai, Ezra would have been worthy to receive the Torah.
Christians regard him as a son of God, like Jesus.
In Persian royal wisdom, he is among the divinely charismatic figures.
The Holy Quran mentions his resurrection.

Section 35: The Great Assembly

Ezra sought to revitalize Moses’ law.
He aimed to meet the Jewish community’s needs through the Old Testament’s texts.
Beyond the synagogue, he established the “Great Assembly” (*Keneset ha-Gedolah*).
This initiative marked the beginning of the Jewish oral tradition.
It led to the writing of the oral Torah and the Talmud.
The Great Assembly comprised 120 Jewish scholars, some of whom were the last Israelite prophets.
They emphasized patience, caution in judgment, gathering disciples, and extensive Torah education.
They advocated building a protective barrier around the Torah.
The Great Assembly was a religious council of teachers and scholars.
They examined the laws and legislation from Moses’ time to their own.

Section 36: Foundations of the Talmud

The Great Assembly laid the groundwork for compiling the Talmud.
After its establishment for religious affairs, the idea emerged that Torah interpretation was passed down from Moses through generations to the Assembly’s members.
Jewish scholars state that Moses received the written Torah from God on Mount Sinai.
He passed it to Joshua son of Nun, who gave it to the elders.
The elders passed it to the prophets, and the prophets to the scholars, until it reached the Great Assembly.

Section 37: Interpretations by the Zugot

Five pairs of scholars (*Zugot*, meaning “pairs”) successively interpreted and established new laws.
The last two pairs, Hillel the Elder (110 BCE–10 CE) and Shammai, are particularly renowned.
Both died around 10 CE.
The Zugot era (30 BCE–170 CE) was a period of Jewish confrontation with dominant Hellenistic and Seleucid Greek culture (323–27 BCE, from Alexander’s death to the Roman Empire’s rise).
Due to population dispersal, forced migration, and cultural interaction, Jews engaged with prevailing cultures.

Section 38: The Sanhedrin

Jews established the *Sanhedrin*, a council of interpreters of the oral Torah.
Beyond scholarly duties, it handled judicial matters under the high priest’s supervision.
Hillel was the high priest of the Solomon Temple during Jesus’ birth.
Hillel, a *Haver* or *Rabban* (uncontested scholar), led the Sanhedrin for 40 years.
He and Shammai each founded a school.
Their disciples disseminated their ideas in the first 70 years of the Christian era.
Hillel’s teachings ultimately prevailed.
Shammai was stricter in his interpretations.
Hillel advocated leniency and liberalism in applying the law.
Hillel clarified Pharisaic views with simple examples.
He believed human life could not be confined to a fixed written law.
Based on the principle of “freedom of interpretation” permitted by the oral Torah, he adapted Torah laws to changing human conditions.
Differences between Hillel and Shammai, documented in the Talmud, number over 300.

Section 39: The Tannaim

Hillel was the first of the *Tannaim* (teachers).
The Tannaim era began with the deaths of Hillel and Shammai around 10 CE.
It ended with the generation after Judah HaNasi around 220 CE.

Section 40: Yochanan ben Zakkai

The second figure in this lineage, linking Hillel to later scholars, was Rabbi Yochanan ben Zakkai.
Before his death, Hillel said of him: “Rabban, father of wisdom and future generations.”
*Rabbi* or *Rabban* (my teacher) refers to Torah teachers, religious authorities, and legal experts.
Its plural, *Rabbanim*, denotes Torah scholars.
When Titus’ army (39–81 CE), the tenth Roman emperor, was destroying Jerusalem in 68 CE and massacring Jews, Yochanan urged calm.
He feared the annihilation of the Jews.
When the Jews rejected his counsel, he relocated the scholarly and religious center.
To achieve this, he spread news of his illness and then his death.
His followers placed him in a coffin and carried him out of the city for burial.
As a distinguished figure, Roman soldiers under Titus, who inspected corpses with spears at Jerusalem’s gates, did not disturb his body.
Outside the city, Yochanan reached Vespasian (9–79 CE), Titus’ father and Roman commander.
He requested that the town of Yavneh (near modern Tel Aviv) be placed under his control.
The request was granted.
He established a school there, continuing his scholarly work.
He transformed it into a Pharisaic Jewish scholarly center.
Thus, he transmitted the teachings of Hillel and other Jewish scholars to future generations.
Vespasian’s acceptance of Yochanan’s request is attributed to his joy at being named emperor upon hearing of his predecessor’s death.

Section 41: Rabbinic Judaism

After Yochanan, in the early 2nd century CE, Ishmael ben Elisha, during Emperor Hadrian’s reign (76–138 CE), expanded Hillel’s interpretive principles.
He laid the foundations for the *Mishnah*.
The efforts of Rabbi Akiva ben Joseph (circa 50–135 CE) were particularly significant.
He greatly contributed to the Talmud.
Much of the Talmud’s current form is indebted to his work.
He drafted the initial structure of the *Mishnah*.
Known as the father of Rabbinic Judaism, the dominant Jewish stream until the 6th century CE, he was executed by the Romans for teaching the Torah.
Rabbinic Judaism, in contrast to Karaism, rejects the oral law, Sanhedrin judgments, Talmud, and Mishnah.
It recognizes only the written Torah (*Tanakh*) as authoritative.
Today, Rabbinic Judaism is the dominant Jewish stream, while Karaism has faded.
Karaites believe the Torah was lost for 50 years, later revived by Jewish clerics.
They hold that Jewish identity is inherited paternally for up to nine generations and is not acquired.

Section 42: The Mishnah

Many scholars credit Judah HaNasi with compiling the Talmud’s text.
Born in 132 CE, three years after Akiva’s death, he studied the interpretations of Akiva and other scholars.
He decided to transcribe them.
This scholar gained prominence among his people.
He served as *Nasi* (leader) for over 50 years.
Judah HaNasi (132–217 CE) named the oral Torah *Mishnah*.
In Hebrew, *Mishnah* means “repetition” or “second,” in contrast to *Mikra* (reading or scripture).
The Talmud is called Mishnah because it is the second Torah.
The Torah is *Mikra* (to be read).
The Mishnah’s language is colloquial Hebrew, less literarily valuable than the Old Testament’s Hebrew.
The Mishnah was completed between 90–220 CE.
The Christian New Testament also took shape during this period.

Section 43: Structure of the Mishnah

The Mishnah has six *Seder* (sections), comprising 63 tractates across 523 chapters, as follows:
– *Seder Zeraim (Seeds)*: Laws on crops, animal products, and charity, with 11 tractates.
– *Seder Moedim (Festivals and Mourning)*: Laws on commemorative days and prohibited acts, with 12 tractates.
– *Seder Nashim (Women)*: Laws on marriage and family rights, with 7 tractates.
– *Seder Nezikin (Damages)*: Laws on property, personal harm, civil, and criminal law, with 10 tractates.
– *Seder Kodashim (Holy Things)*: Laws on Jewish sacred matters, with 11 tractates.
– *Seder Taharot (Purities)*: Laws on purity, impurity, and ritual cleansing, with 12 tractates.

Section 44: The Gemara

Three centuries after the Mishnah’s compilation, its commentary was called *Gemara*, meaning “completion.”
The authors of these commentaries, called *Amoraim* (rabbis), claim their content preserves the sayings of past scholars.
It completes the Mishnah.
In the Gemara, a Mishnah passage is quoted.
It is followed by interpretation, analysis, and supporting evidence.
The Gemara’s purpose was to facilitate Torah study and transmission.

Section 45: The Babylonian Talmud

Two Gemaras were written for the Mishnah.
The Palestinian Gemara (219–359 CE) was compiled by Palestinian Jewish scholars.
The Babylonian Gemara (219–499 CE), more extensive and engaging, was written by Jewish scholars who remained in Babylon.
The Talmud exists in two forms: the Palestinian (Jerusalem) Talmud and the Babylonian (Iraqi) Talmud.
Today, *Talmud* typically refers to the Babylonian Talmud.
It was compiled between the 3rd and 5th centuries CE.
It was finalized in 499 CE, shortly before Islam’s emergence.

Section 46: The Talmud’s Role

The Talmud, a comprehensive encyclopedia of Judaism, safeguards this religion.
It is the source of Jewish legal jurisprudence.
The Talmud is divided into four sections: theology, religious rituals, ethical principles, and law.
These teachings are structured in six simple sections relevant to early communities: agriculture, festivals, women and family, prohibitions and penalties, sacrifices and offerings, and purity.

Section 47: Political Context of the Talmud

The Talmud and oral Torah emerged in response to Jesus’ teachings and their popular appeal.
They aimed to protect and preserve Jewish identity against these teachings.
They sought to maintain the racial foundation of Judaism.
The original Talmud is held by Jews.
Published versions may not be free from censorship or omissions.
Numerous Persian words from the Achaemenid and early Parthian periods entered the Semitic literature of the Talmud.
Some Old Testament sections were written in ancient Persia during the Achaemenid era.

Section 48: Cultural Impact of the Talmud

The Talmud is taught in some South Korean schools or among Korean families.
Koreans believe that emulating Jews enables high scholarly achievement.