Poetry Composition

Poetry Composition
Exploration in the Science of Prosody and the Teaching of Rhyme Letters and Movements
(Heavenly Blessings Upon Him)
By: Ayatollah Mohammad Reza Nekoonam

Title: Poetry Composition: Exploration in the Science of Prosody and the Teaching of Rhyme Letters and Movements / Mohammad Reza Nekoonam.
Publisher: Sobhe Farda, Islamshahr, 2014.
Pages: 83 pages.
ISBN: 978-600-7347-83-6
National Bibliography Number: 3624808
Language: Persian
Subject: Persian Prosody, Rhyme
Classification: 1393, 2 S 8 N / 3558PIR
Dewey Classification: 41/0 Fa 8

Preface

“Poetry” is a universally recognized truth for all humans, regardless of language or dialect. It is the “voice of the heart,” a manifestation of one’s inner feelings. Just as a philosopher uses logic and reasoning to express a truth, someone inclined towards poetry is a person with a heart that yearns to express its innermost emotions. Poetry is the language of the heart—be it sorrow, separation, love, or any profound feeling. Similarly, if the human mind is drawn to extremes, it results in either laziness or malevolent actions. Likewise, if the heart remains dormant, devoid of melody or inspiration, it leads to cowardice and weakness.

The spirit and heart of a person must be sound for an unwavering, strong, and elevated soul to emerge. It is the heart that holds willpower and determination. At times, it may swell with pride and strength, so much so that no external force can match its vigor.

In essence, poetry is the language of the human heart, and like all natural languages, it adheres to specific rules. Poetry must possess a rhythm, and the science of prosody explains the quality of this rhythm, measuring the soul of the verse. Similarly, poetry must have a rhyme. The rhyme is formed by a set of nine letters, and their arrangement gives rise to the structure of the rhyme. Additionally, the movements of the rhyme are categorized into six types: “Res”, “Ishbah”, “Hadh”, “Tawjih”, “Majra”, and “Nafadh,” each of which is elaborated on in this work.

Praise is due to God, the Almighty.

The Necessity of Literary and Rhetorical Knowledge for Composing Poetry

To compose poetry, one must first possess the talent and inclination for it. Poetry should emanate from an inner “spark,” and only through effort can it take form. Without this inherent drive, no effort will yield results. After possessing the requisite talent, a poet must have a message. Without inner pain, wisdom, or inspiration, a poet’s work remains empty—like a vessel with no water to offer. Beyond these two aspects, it is essential for the poet to acquire literary and rhetorical knowledge, including knowledge of prosody and rhyme, to craft their poetry in an aesthetically pleasing and technically sound manner. These five fields—meaning, expression, rhetoric, prosody, and rhyme—govern the form and content of poetry in any style, whether it is epic, romantic, mystic, moral, satirical, or humorous.

In this context, prosody and rhyme are specific to poetry, but the rhetorical elements are also useful in prose, though prose does not require the structure of meter and rhyme. While these scientific fields play a significant role in a poet’s work, social awareness, cultural understanding, and experience of pain also contribute to the vitality of poetry.

A poet with greater depth of understanding, broader knowledge, and richer experience will produce more powerful poetry. Poetry that resonates with the heart and stays in history is that of a poet whose artistic expression draws from an extensive knowledge of literary, rhetorical, and social sciences. A poet must possess a refined taste, profound knowledge, a capable mind, and a deep understanding of the people. A poet’s language must be clear and evocative, shaped by an understanding of literature and the people, while a capable mind is the result of mastery in numerous fields of knowledge.

The Difference Between Literary and Logical Poetry

Poetry must be both rhythmic and rhymed, and it is with these two characteristics that it can either be imaginative or logical. Mere imaginative speech does not constitute poetry. The “imaginary speech” refers to a definition of poetry in contrast to logic, induction, rhetoric, and oratory. This speech, whether rhythmic or not, does not possess the credibility of argumentation. What we refer to as poetry is the literary definition of it.

Thus, literary poetry can encompass both imaginative and non-imaginative forms, while logical poetry may or may not be rhythmic. Literary poetry may include reasoning, oratory, and deduction, and it may be classified as argumentative, rhetorical, or similar, depending on the content. The distinction between literary and logical poetry is akin to the difference between medicine and mysticism in the interpretation of love. Just as a physician like Avicenna would define love as a psychological illness, a mystic would describe it as an essential part of the soul’s connection to the divine.

Music and Poetry

The rhythmic nature of poetry gives it a musical structure. Every poem fits within one of the musical modes. A person with knowledge of music can easily identify which musical scale a particular poem belongs to. Whether it is in the “Segah” mode or the “Shushtari,” “Abu Atta,” or “Biyaat,” understanding poetry’s musicality enhances its recitation and reception. Just as poetry cannot exist without words, it cannot exist without sound. Every poem carries a melody, which is why poetry can be evocative, whether it brings joy, sorrow, or excitement.

Heart and Poetry

It must be acknowledged that poetry, along with its resonance, melody, and music, takes shape within the realm of the heart. Anyone who is distant from these concepts and indifferent to them lacks a “heart”—rather, they possess a soul that has been afflicted with dryness and aridity, requiring a gentling and refining influence. Poetry is the voice of the heart, revealing the innermost thoughts and feelings of the individual. Hence, it is a form of speech that is receptive to expression: “A word that arises from the heart inevitably settles in the heart.” Poetry is the speech of the soul, and the rules derived for it in the sciences of prosody and rhyme are also drawn from this inner call. These principles offer us the logic of its natural receptivity and aesthetic appeal.

The Structure (Arose)

Prosody of Poetry

The subject of prosody pertains to the rhythm of poetry. The essence and measure of a poem are defined by the rhythm it carries. In this context, “prosody” (from the Arabic root ‘arudh) means to be in a state of being measured or subjected, much like akool (meaning “eaten” in Arabic) which also refers to something in a state of consumption or subject to a particular effect. Prosody should be considered the standard or measure against which poetry is assessed—serving as a scale and framework that indicates whether a poem is properly structured or not, rhythmic or discordant. The study of prosody provides the metric by which poetry is judged, offering structure to distinguish coherent verse from incoherent verse, just as in Arabic grammar, where the measure of verbs and nouns is judged by their respective sounds. It is prosody that provides poetry with its rhythm and structure, as exemplified in the metrical pattern of “fa’ulun fa’ulun fa’ulun fa’l” found in the couplet “Chosefte, Bego ay meh delruba,” which is situated in the “Mutakareb” meter.

“Fa’ul”, “fa’lat”, and “mustaf’il”, are the three pillars of prosodic structure that are constructed from the three main letters of Arabic: fa, ‘a, l, and each one, when combined with others, forms various configurations that shape the rhythms of poetry and delineate the movement or stillness of each line. However, prosody differs from morphological structure in that it does not concern itself with the phonetic properties of letters and their movements and pauses, but rather with the balance of these elements. Thus, it is not required for a movement to be directly followed by the same movement; for example, a damma (the short “u” sound) can be followed by a kasra (the short “i” sound).

The “root” or “vowel” is the smallest unit of prosody, formed from several syllables that connect through strong rhythmic beats. The smallest unit of these “roots” is “fa” (two-lettered or three-syllable), and the largest is “mustaf’ilatan,” a unit consisting of nine letters and five syllables. The rhythm is created by the repetition of these basic units.

While poetry arises from the natural disposition of the soul and the mind’s creative expression, the establishment of structured meters for it, such as prosodic rules, is still in harmony with this very nature, as it is the inherent intuition of the human spirit that has devised such rules to guide poetry. Poetry is the expression of the heart, and this expression naturally takes a form that is harmonious with the rhythmic patterns—a natural way for poetry to become aesthetically pleasing.

Poetry represents the revelation and expression of the subconscious and inner impulses. Yet, the study of prosody and its principles, through reflection on these natural phenomena, has derived rules that provide a means to uphold the natural harmony and ensure that the poetic rhythm aligns with the aesthetic reception of the audience. These principles are not arbitrary constructs imposed by the mind; rather, they emerge organically from the natural workings of a healthy and intuitive intellect, just as logic is not a contrived invention but rather a reflection of natural, sound reasoning based on the human intellect’s inherent faculties.

Indeed, the metrical patterns of prosody have been gathered inductively, and there remains an opportunity to design new ones, provided that they maintain musicality. As exemplified by Rumi, who introduced innovations in some of his verses, prosody serves as the formalized expression of the heart’s voice, structuring it in a way that each verse maintains a specific measure, and related verses are coordinated accordingly.

The Cause, the Measure, and the Interval

Three essential components of prosody are the cause, the measure, and the interval. Depending on the sequencing of these components, ten basic rhythmic units emerge from eight distinct meters. These ten units are referred to as “primary prosodic feet” or “intact prosodic units,” and each consists of no fewer than three syllables but no more than five. They are as follows: ma’fulun, fa’lan, mustaf’ilun, mafa’ilun, fa’latun, muta’falun, mafa’ilatun, ma’fulat, mustaf’ilun, and fa’latun.

Of these, four rhythmic units—fa’lan, muta’falun, mafa’ilatun, and ma’fulatun—are not commonly used in Persian poetry. The units that contain fewer than three syllables or more than five syllables are considered subsidiary meters and are less frequently employed.

The Persian language contains three short vowels and three long vowels. The short vowels are: a, i, u, and the long vowels are: ā, o, ī. Of the 32 letters of the Persian alphabet (which, when excluding consonants like s, th, z etc., reduces to 23), all are consonants.

A “syllable” is a unit of speech that is produced with each inhalation of air from the lungs. Syllables are of three types: short, consisting of two characters (a consonant followed by a short vowel), long, consisting of three characters (a consonant, a short vowel, and either another consonant or a long vowel), and drawn-out, consisting of four or five characters (combinations of consonants and vowels). Short syllables are represented as “U”, long syllables as “––”, and drawn-out syllables as “U––”.

The duration of each long vowel is twice that of a short vowel and is counted as two characters in prosody. However, it is important to note that “ā” in written form is equivalent to a hamzah and is thus a long vowel, making it equivalent to three characters. Similarly, although o and ī are long vowels when they are the second character of a syllable, in some words, such as in “qawl” and “seel”, they function as consonants.

To determine the rhythm of poetry, accurate reading, correct writing (using prosodic notation), and syllabification are necessary. Syllabification refers to dividing the poem into syllables, determining whether they are short, long, or drawn-out.

Syllabic Division of Prosodic Units

In the syllabic division of a verse, the syllables of each line, whether short, long, or drawn-out, are marked. In prosodic division by unit, the syllables are grouped in threes or fours depending on the structure of the line.

Group 8:

Mafa’len Fa’laten Mafa’len Fa’laten:

• Mujattath Muthamman Makhboun
  “When you show me the agony of separation, I cannot endure the torment, let my blood spill for salvation.”
• Mujattath Muthamman Makhboun Mahzoof
  This meter is the most commonly used meter in Persian poetry. For example:
  “Be it beauty, character, or loyalty, no one approaches my beloved; in this matter, no denial is possible.”

Group 9:

New Prosody: Mustaf’il Fa’alat Mafa’oolun
(= Traditional Prosody: Mafa’ool Mafa’len Mafa’il)

• Hajj Moussadas Akhbar Maqbooz
  “I regret what I have done, for beyond repentance, I know no other way.”

New Prosody: Mustaf’il Fa’alat Fa’aln
(Traditional Prosody: Mafa’ool Mafa’len Fa’ooln)

• Hajj Moussadas Akhbar Maqbooz Mahzoof
  “Words can be struck like pearls, but the brick was full of strength.”

Single Meters:

Fa’laten Mafa’len Fa’lun

• Khafif Moussadas Makhboun Mahzoof
  This meter is the fifth most frequently used meter in Persian poetry. For example:
  “In his gaze, the spirit of magic blooms, on his lips, the song of unity sings.”

Muft’iln Fa’alat Muft’iln Fa’l

• Mansarh Muthamman Matwi Manhoor
  “Perhaps, if the sun and moon do not shine, before the crescent-like eyebrows of Muhammad.”

Mustaf’iln Mustaf’iln Mustaf’iln Mustaf’il

• Rajaz Muthamman Salim
  “Tell me who you are? Say a star, say a moon, are you a dream, an illusion, tell me, a sigh, a cry.”

Fa’lat Fa’alatn Fa’lat Fa’alatn

• Raml Muthamman Mashkool
  “Can I take the air? There are no fairies, no wings. Where should I go from your grasp, when you give me no respite?”

Muft’iln Mafa’len Muft’iln Mafa’len

• Rajaz Muthamman Matwi Makhboun
  “Where does your gaze go? If it travels with you, it leaves and never returns, yet you never let it go.”

Mafa’ool Mafa’il Fa’alatn

• Qarib Moussadas Akhbar Makfoof
  “O the source of goodness and renown, my day does not shine without you.”

The meters and poetic structures mentioned above are commonly used in Persian poetry, although some of them are either obsolete or have been created merely for decorative purposes.

Mathnawi Meters

It is important to briefly mention the meters used in Mathnawi and their practical application:

Mathnawi meters include:
Fa’oolun Fa’oolun Fa’oolun Fa’l
This meter is heroic and martial, suitable for advice and admonition, like the Shahnameh and Bustan.

Mafa’ilun Mafa’ilin Fa’oolun
This meter is appropriate for romantic tales, like Vis and Ramin or Khosrow and Shirin.

Fa’alatn Fa’alatn Fa’alun
Suitable for didactic and mystical themes, such as Mantiq al-Tayr and Mathnawi.

Muft’iln Muft’iln Fa’alun
Appropriate for advice and wisdom, like Makhzan al-Asrar by Nezami.

Mafa’ool Mafa’len Fa’oolun
Suitable for romantic themes, such as Layla and Majnun by Nezami, Majnun and Layla by Jami, and Tuhfat al-Iraqayn by Khaghani.

Dori Meters

Some of the meters mentioned above are “Dori” (alternating meters). A “Dori” meter consists of two parts in each line, where the second part repeats the first part. The most common Dori meters are:

• Muft’iln Fa’aln
• Mafa’ool Fa’alatn
• Mafa’ool Mafa’iln
• Mafa’len Fa’aln

The first three of these are the most commonly used Dori meters, and the fourth has limited use.

In Dori meters, the final syllable of the first part of each line is always long, but it can be elongated or shortened. Furthermore, the syllables of each line are typically even, and the syllables in each half-line are usually seven or five.

Poetic Choices (Ikhtiyarat)

A poet has two types of choices: linguistic and metrical.

Linguistic choices give the poet flexibility in pronunciation, allowing them to use certain variations to fit the meter without altering its structure. These include:

• The possibility of omitting the “hamzah” when a consonant precedes it in a word.
• Changing the quantity of vowels by shortening long vowels or elongating short vowels.

Metrical choices provide limited flexibility to the poet in modifying the meter, which does not violate the auditory standards of Persian speakers. These changes include:

• Lengthening the final syllable of a line, whether it is elongated or shortened.
• Substituting one meter with another to maintain the rhythm, like changing from Fa’latn (U U — —) to Fa’alatn (— U — —).
• Substituting two short syllables with one long syllable (a common practice before the penultimate syllable).

Rhyme and Refrain (Radif)

• “Radif” in Persian refers to a word or phrase that appears at the end of both lines of a couplet and must have the same meaning and sound. For example:
  “The moon’s radiance is like your face, your lips like honey’s sweetness.”
  This type of repetition is known as Muraddaf.

“Qafiyah” (Rhyme) is a necessary element of Persian poetry and refers to matching the final sounds of words in each line. If two words share the same final sound but differ in meaning, they are considered to be in rhyme, not refrain.

Conclusion

In Persian poetry, the use of rhythm, meter, rhyme, and refrain all contribute to the musicality and beauty of the poem. The structure allows for great flexibility while maintaining a strong sense of form, which is essential in classical Persian poetic traditions.

It has been said that rhyme is based on the consonant sound, and a poem without rhyme cannot be considered poetry. In rhyme, unnecessary letters should not be used; otherwise, the poem will be weak. Adhering to this principle is of great importance in Arabic poetry, but in Persian, its significance is not as fundamental as in Arabic. Examples of unnecessary letters include those that are used for exclamation, prayer, calling, specification, qualification, location, capability, companionship, similarity, cultivation, desire, protection, formation, profession, or plurality.

Another example is the letter ‘alif’ used in its emphatic or extended form, and the root letters of words that should be studied in detail under the category of rhyme flaws. For example, ‘alif’ in words like “mardomān” (people) and “derakhtān” (trees), as well as the vocative ‘alif’ in “sha” and “shahriyārā” (meaning “O”) are considered unnecessary and cannot be used as a rhyme. However, the use of a redundant letter that has, through frequent usage, become accepted as an essential part of a word—such as “masjid” instead of “masjad” or “sukīnah” instead of “sakinah”—is not problematic. In the following line, Ferdowsi uses a redundant letter that functions as a consonant:

“Tavānā būd har ke dānā būd,
Z-dānesh del pir barna būd.”

Another example of unnecessary letters includes the agentive ‘alif,’ which conveys the meaning of an agent, as in “binā” (seeing) or “shunwā” (hearing), and cannot be used as a rhyme. However, in many such cases, ‘alif’ functions as an essential part of the word, and in these instances, it can be considered a valid rhyme.

The attributive ‘alif’ that imparts a sense of qualification to a noun—such as in “zībā” (beautiful) or “shakībah” (patient)—also falls under this category. Similarly, the vocative ‘alif’ at the end of a noun and its use in imperatives—such as in “biyāyad” (come!) or “rūdā” (flow!)—and the ‘alif’ of reverence, as seen in “Āfāridgarā” (O Creator), or the ‘alif’ of exclamation, like in “basā,” and the ‘alif’ of specification, such as in “ūrā” (for him) or “jāmara” (the garment), are also examples.

Suffixes like “āsā” in words like “shirāsā” (lion-hearted), which serve a formative role, and the plural “hā” (as in “goherhā” – jewels), as well as the vowel-elongating or emphatic “alif” and “wāw” and the vocative “yā,” are also noteworthy.

Other examples include the suffix “ab” in words like “sīlāb” (flood) and “khūnāb” (blood), and the suffix “t” in words like “goydat” (you say), which carries the meaning of “is.”

The use of the feminine “tā” in Persian rhyme—such as in “ni‘mat” (blessing) and “rahmat” (mercy)—is not problematic.

Suffixes like “mand,” which serves as an adjective in words like “dāneshmand” (scholar), “arzeshmand” (valuable), and “honarmand” (artist), as well as “dār” in words like “ābdār” (watery) and “tābdār” (bearing heat), and the conjunctions like “ʿālamān-and” (the learned ones) and “tavān-garān-and” (the rich ones), are also permissible.

Suffixes like “gar,” which denote profession, are valid in words like “kāsegar” (potter), “zargar” (goldsmith), and “kūzegar” (brickmaker).

The verbal noun suffix “ān” that conveys a nominal meaning—such as in “raftār” (behavior), “kirdār” (deed), and “goftār” (speech)—or, if adjective-forming, as in “kushtār” (slaughter) and “mardār” (dead), is also acceptable.

Suffixes like “sār” in “sharm-sār” (ashamed) or “negūn-sār” (dejected), and the comparative “tar” in “ʿālam-tar” (more knowledgeable) and “tavān-gar-tar” (stronger), except in “behtar” (better), which has the force of a root letter, are also accepted.

Suffixes like “wār,” used for capacity, as in “goshwār” (earring) or “māhwār” (moon-shaped), and “war,” used to convey companionship or possession, as in “honarwar” (skilled artist) or “pishwar” (leader), are also valid.

Suffixes like “bārah” used for expressing desire, as in “shikam-bārah” (glutton) or “sokhan-bārah” (talkative), and “zār” used for cultivation or planting, as in “kusht-zār” (field of cultivation) and “lāle-zār” (tulip field), also fit within permissible usage.

Suffixes like “dān” used for containers, such as “qalam-dān” (pen holder) and “namak-dān” (salt container), or “gāhbān” (herdsman) and “darbān” (doorman) for guardianship, are also valid.

Suffixes like “stān” used to denote location, as in “tarkestān” (place of departure), “kūhestān” (mountain region), and “dashtestān” (plain), and the suffix “gūn” used to express similarity, as in “gandom-gūn” (wheat-like) and “lāle-gūn” (tulip-like), are also acceptable.

The use of these unnecessary letters in rhyme, often referred to as “iṭā’” and “rhyme flaws,” weakens the poem and renders it flawed. These elements should be avoided in rhyme, and their use should be restricted to non-rhyming sections.

Other examples of rhyme flaws that are relevant to this discussion include the following:

• Using the rhyme “pur” with “tar” is incorrect because the first vowel is a dammah, and the second vowel is a fatha.
• Using “Ferdowsi” as a rhyme with “Tusī” is also incorrect, as the “waw” in “Ferdowsī” is silent.
• Using “iḥtiyāt” (caution) with “iʿtimād” (trust) is flawed because the final consonants are different.
• Repetition of words in rhyme is generally considered a major flaw, unless the poem is long, exceeding twenty or thirty verses, or a qaṣīdah with two separate stanzas.
• Rhyme is based on phonetic similarity, both in auditory and visual aspects; for instance, “rīz” (fine) and “khīz” (rise) are valid rhymes, but “ḥaẓīẓ,” “ladhīẓ,” “ghalīẓ,” and “mishk-bīz” are not, as their orthographic forms differ.
• As discussed earlier, repeating elements of non-simple words can only be used as rhymes when their components are not overtly apparent, such as in “ranjūr” (sick) and “mazdūr” (laborer), or when there is a distinguishable difference, as in “ābdār” (watery) and “pāydār” (stable). However, repeating identical components like “khūb-tar” (better) and “bad-tar” (worse), or “zulfakān” (curly hair) and “rakhān” (brush), is not permissible.

Foundational Letters

The use of foundational letters in Persian poetry, while optional, does occur in some rhymes, unlike in Arabic poetry where it is mandatory. The foundational letter, typically ‘alif,’ is attached to a moving letter before the rhyme, as seen in words like “māyel,” “shāmil,” and “ḥāsil.” These letters, forming the foundation of the rhyme, are called “mu’assas” because they appear at the beginning of the rhyme structure.

Intercalary Letters

Intercalary letters, which come between the foundational and the rhyming letter, are used to link them, as seen in examples like “taʿādul” (balance) and “taqābul” (opposition). In such cases, any rhyme that has a foundational letter will also have an intercalary letter. For example:

“ʿAdl-e tō dar aṣdād nahad rasm-e taʿādul
Az chār jihat tā ke bārūn nīst taqābul.”

Supporting Letters

“Redf” are letters that precede the rhyme. These can be either essential or redundant. Essential supporting letters include “wāw,” “alif,” and “yā,” which connect directly to the rhyme without any intervening space. Redundant supporting letters, however, are consonants that create a gap between the root and the rhyme, as seen in words like “tākht” (took) and “sākht” (made). These redundant letters, while adding to the form, should be used with care.

Four Letters After “Ravi”

The four letters that follow “Ravi” are: “Wasl,” “Khorouj,” “Mazid,” and “Nayera.”

Wasl Letter

The “Wasl” letter is the first letter that follows “Ravi” and is attached to it. It connects the Khorouj, Mazid, and Nayera letters to the “Ravi.” In Persian, the Wasl letters are: “Alef,” “Zay,” “Kaf,” “A,” and “Yeh,” along with the letters of absence, address, speech, and relation. For example:

Zan pish keh az jor-e-to delbandā
Gooyam be sahar, zār Khodāvandā

In the above verse, “Alef” is the Wasl, and “Dal” is the Ravi.

Man khak-e-jan bādam kāv-zulf-to jonband
Dar ātesham az ābi kandom tora mānd

In this verse, “Nun” in the words “jonband” and “mānd” is the Ravi, and “Dal” is the Wasl.

Khorouj Letter

The “Khorouj” letter is connected to the Wasl, and through it, the poet exits the Wasl. For example:

Derakht, gonche bar āvard va bolbulān mast-and
Jahan, javan shod va yārān be ‘ish beneshast-and

The two words “mast-and” and “beneshast-and” rhyme. “Seen” is the adverb letter, “Teh” is the stationary Ravi, “Nun” is the Wasl, and “Dal” is the Khorouj.

Mazid Letter

Mazid is the letter that joins with Khorouj, and it is something sweet and additional to Khorouj. It immediately follows the Khorouj. For example:

Ey keh be lutf va delbari, az do jahān ziyāde-i!
Ey keh cho āftāb va meh, dast-e-keram goshaade-i!

Nayera Letter

The Nayera letter (also known as “Nayer”) refers to all the letters that come after Mazid, and they can be one or multiple. Nayera signifies fleeing, anxiety, and inflammation, and is related to “Nar” meaning fire, as fire is also associated with heat and anxiety. A woman who flees from evil and immorality is called “Nawar.” Since the Nayera letter is distant from other rhyming letters, it is named as such. Nayera appears in the following poem:

Kāsh qadr ni’mat-ash dānishtami
Yā adā-ye-shokr betavāneshtami

In this verse, “Alef” is the main rhyme, “Nun” is the Ravi letter, “Seen” is the Wasl letter, “Teh” is the Khorouj, “Meem” is the Mazid, and “Yeh” is the Nayera.

An example of multiple Nayera letters includes “Alef” and “Nun” in the following verse:

To ghasstī ‘ahd-e-del-hā, mā beh-ham basteem-shān
Bā ham andar reshte-ye-zulf to peyvasteem-shān

In this verse, “Teh” is the Ravi, “Seen” is the adverb letter, “Yeh” is the Wasl, “Meem” is the Khorouj, “Sheen” is the Mazid, and “Alef” and “Nun” are the Nayera letters.

Rhyme Movements

Another aspect of rhyme is its movements. The movements of the rhyming letters must be clear, distinct, and well-known. They have certain rules. There are six types of rhyme movements: “Ras,” “Ishba,” “Hadhw,” “Tawjeeh,” “Majra,” and “Nafaz.”

Ras and Ishba and Hadhw and Tawjeeh
Majra and after that Nafaz

Ras Movement

Ras is the movement before the foundation “Alef,” and it is exclusively the “Fatha” (open vowel) because Alef only emerges from Fatha. The melody of the rhyme begins with Ras, not with the foundation. It should be noted that the letter “Hamza” can occur at the beginning, middle, or end of a word, unlike Alef, which never comes at the beginning of a word. The difference between Alef and Hamza is more in the position of their occurrence, not in their essence.

In the language, Ras means to begin slowly, without hurry or noise, and is also a form of novelty. Someone who is in the beginning stage of a fever is called “Ras al-Hammā” (beginning of the fever), and someone in the early stages of love is called “Ras al-Hawā” (beginning of love). Similarly, the Fatha movement begins softly and subtly.

Examples of the Ras movement:

Beshno az ney chon hekāyat mikonad
Az jodāyi-hā shekāyat mikonad

Ishba Movement

Ishba consists of two types: the movement of the borrowed letter or the movement before the mobile “Ravi.” Thus, the Ishba letter is not stationary, unlike the “Radv” and “Qaid” letters, which are stationary. The term Ishba in prosody differs from its use in Tajweed.

In semantics, Ishba means excess or filling, and here it refers to a movement. It should be noted that all letters before “Ravi” are stationary, except the borrowed letter, which is not. Ishba brings Fatha, Dhamma, or Kasra to the letter. The borrowed movement in the connected rhymes is called Ishba, and in the constrained rhymes, it is called Tawjeeh.

For example: If the words “Ma’il” and “Zayil” are used as rhymes, “Lam” is the Ravi letter, “Alef” is the foundation letter, “Yeh” is the borrowed letter, and the Fatha of Meem is the Ras movement, while the Kasra in Yeh is the Ishba.

Examples of the first type of Ishba, which is the movement of the borrowed letter, is:

Zan yār delnavāzam shokri ast bā shekāyat
Gar nokte-dān ‘eshqī, beshno to in hekāyat

Hadhw Movement

“Hadhw” means to align or match. It refers to the movement before the stationary Ravi and Qaid letters, such as Alef, Vav, or Yeh, which must match in movement with them and never change. They always have a fixed and stable movement, such as:

Ey beh himmat bar āsmān-at dast
Āsmān bā ‘ulūw qadr to past

Tawjeeh Movement

Tawjeeh refers to the movement before the stationary Ravi, whether Fatha, Kasra, or Dhamma, and it is called this due to the attention paid to what follows it.

It is important to note that the “Ravi” can be either moving or stationary. The moving Ravi is called “Ravi Mutlaq” or “Ravi Mawsool,” while the stationary Ravi is called “Ravi Muqayyad.” The movement of the borrowed letter in the connected rhyme is called Ishba, and in the constrained rhymes, it is called Tawjeeh.

Majra Movement

The movement before the mobile “Ravi” is called “Majra,” meaning passageway, like a water channel. The sound in the “Wasl” begins with the movement of the “Ravi” and passes through the “Wasl.” Without the movement of the “Ravi,” the sound of the “Wasl” does not emerge.

Thus, when the Ravi is absolute—i.e., when the movement occurs on it—it has its own movement and transmits sound to the next “Wasl.” This is why it is called Majra.

The difference between Tawjeeh and Majra lies in whether the Ravi is stationary or moving.

Nafaz Movement

“Nafaz” is the movement of the “Wasl” letter after the “Ravi.” Nafaz means penetration or swift passage, and through its movement, the sound quickly and sharply reaches the core of the poetic flow and the listener’s heart.

The Nafaz movement spreads from the “Ravi” to the “Wasl” and from the “Wasl” to the “Khorouj,” as long as it has movement, and such a word has an impact and reaches the heart. In Nafaz, it is the “Ravi” that activates the “Wasl” and makes the sound flow.

Examples of Nafaz can be found in the following verse:

Marakib-e-rooh, tan bood, su-ye-to midavānem-ash
Yā to darāreš az pā, yā be-to mi-rasānem-ash