Significant Sciences and Perspectives (Volume One)
Significant Sciences and Perspectives
(Volume One)
(His Holiness)
Ayatollah Mohammadreza Nekounam
Author: Nekounam, Mohammadreza, b. 1948
Title and Author’s Name: An Overview of Significant Sciences and Perspectives / Volume One / Mohammadreza Nekounam.
Publishing Information: Tehran: Sobhe Farda Publications, 2020.
Physical Description: 3 volumes.
ISBN: 978-600-397-075-5
Catalogue Information: FIPA
Subject: Sciences — 14th Century
Subject: Persian Poetry — 20th Century
Library of Congress Classification: 1399 9B93K / 8362PIR
Dewey Decimal Classification: 62/1FA 8
National Bibliography Number: 5233279
Preface
Significant Sciences and Perspectives presents the most important viewpoints, foundational principles, and basic rules I hold in various fields of knowledge. This book is organised into three volumes. The first volume addresses fundamental sciences. The first chapter covers some of the most significant thoughts I have on eloquent and modern literature, emphasising the necessity of etymological knowledge. The second chapter discusses scientific logic, the third covers the Qur’an, the fourth elaborates on the philosophy of existence and manifestation, and the fifth presents the mysticism of the beloved.
In literature, I discuss the nature of language, the system of semantics, and the essential presuppositions of language and Qur’anic literature. I also explore the nature of exegesis, interpretation, and the fallacies that hinder the correct understanding of the Holy Qur’an. One of the most important literary concepts in this chapter is the wisdom behind the placement of words for meaning.
The second chapter discusses self-evident and certain propositions, as well as the foundational self-evidences to which all theoretical statements in logic ultimately return. Logic is examined in terms of definition, propositions, predicates, and fallacies, which are key sections of this chapter.
In the third chapter, I introduce the characteristics of “the guidance of interpretation” and propose the establishment and management of a city for the Holy Qur’an. It also explains the nature of revelation and prophecy, the language of the Qur’an, and the path of truth, intimacy, and companionship for understanding this language.
The philosophy of existence and manifestation presents our views in three philosophical branches: ontology, anthropology, and epistemology.
In the “Mysticism of the Beloved,” these same three themes are explored from a mystical perspective. In this chapter, we discuss unity and the guardianship of the perfect human being. In mysticism, I revisit key sources of mystical knowledge, such as the Sharh Manazil al-Sa’irin, the ninth and tenth sections of Al-Isharat wa al-Tanbihat, the Sharh Fusus al-Hikam, the Sharh Misbah al-Ans and the Sharh Tamheed al-Qawa’id. This chapter also addresses the position of the great mystic Ibn Arabi and his disciple, Sadreddin Qunawi, along with their most important mystical works.
The second volume of this book deals with the principles of jurisprudence, the scientific foundations of Shiite jurisprudence, focusing on ijtihad based on the analysis of subjects, criteria identification, and the principles of law.
The third volume of Significant Sciences and Perspectives provides an overview of our perspectives on psychology, sociology, the science of living, spiritual remembrance, the divine names, Qur’anic divination, dream interpretation, and body language.
What is presented in these three volumes is a summary of conventional and prevalent sciences in sixteen chapters. These sciences are found in Islam, other religions, and across all nations and peoples. They shape various branches, such as mathematics, natural sciences, humanities, and literature.
However, this collection also contains another category of sciences that is unconventional, and since it is not commonly taught in standard academic settings, it is often referred to as esoteric sciences. I have presented these sciences independently. Some of these esoteric sciences include Ramal, Jafr, astrolabes, astronomy, magic, talismans, and the principles of numerology and divine names, from the ninety-nine names to seventy thousand active, descriptive, and essential names, as well as the names of indeterminate divine manifestations that emerge endlessly in both determinate and indeterminate forms.
These esoteric sciences are revealed in specific individuals as divine gifts. Such gifts may appear in childhood or later in life. The manifestation of these sciences occurs through divine grace, personal exertion, isolation, and spiritual journeys, in alignment with the seeker’s spiritual progression. To acquire these esoteric sciences, one requires exceptional intellect, a pure nature, lawful sustenance, an untouched childhood, nocturnal wakefulness, extensive spiritual exercises, and guidance from an experienced mentor.
It is hoped that this part of the book will revive these forgotten sciences in the Islamic world and the broader human knowledge domain. It aims to offer a new perspective and a dynamic contribution to the field of knowledge and fill the noticeable gap these sciences currently face in the modern academic world. It is my hope that this book will open the path for those engaged in these sciences to explore them further.
Chapter 1: Modern Literature and Etymology
Introduction
“Literature” is the result derived from the external interactions, actions, and reactions of an individual. It is based on outward appearances and the external behaviors and interactions of people. Literature has an external and practical dimension. In contrast, ethics are internal characteristics, such as fear and courage, generosity and stinginess, which reflect an individual’s moral qualities and disposition, even when they are not acted upon. Ethics form the foundation of literature. While ethics exist within, when they manifest in actions, they become literature. Literature is the refinement and discipline of one’s outward actions, guiding them towards appropriate conduct. The external aspects of literature stem from the moral traits and actions, and since it is not innate but external, one may only exhibit superficial politeness. Literature, in essence, involves maintaining balance and moderation without excess or deficiency, and it requires wisdom. A person with proper literature is one who gives everything its due. Literature is the proportion and measure in one’s interactions.
Literature can evolve into culture and, in turn, shape it. Culture is the civil presence of a community, characterized by widespread and profound collective identity and connections. Words that have a public use and are employed by the collective are considered “culture.” The language of a people is their culture. Culture is the shared bonds within a community that unite its members. The origins of culture lie within society and its people, and its greatness depends on the language of the intellectual and scholarly class. The language of intellectuals expresses precise mental and philosophical constructs, going beyond ordinary, colloquial, or conventional language. The importance of this language lies in the fact that the progress or decline of any society depends on this factor, namely the “scientific language of the elites,” as well as two other factors: “the presence of geniuses” and “social culture.” All three factors must align for societal growth to be realized. In the absence of any of these factors, the others lose their effectiveness and appear only as the prerequisites for growth. “The production of knowledge,” “cooperation,” and “the vitality of life” are guaranteed when these three factors combine. If the intellectuals, their scientific language, and social culture do not follow the right path, ordinary, non-scientific individuals may manipulate the masses through deceit or force, leading to widespread ignorance, despotism, and corruption arising from poor management and erroneous decisions. What reaches the people—and what the media pursues—is mere superficiality, devoid of meaningful content, and society becomes trapped in a cycle of appearance and surface-level concerns.
In addition to the three aforementioned factors, the advancement of culture also depends on national wealth. The economy precedes culture in any society, and any language or culture that suffers from economic weakness becomes susceptible to invasion, subjugation, and destruction. Even the most advanced language can be restricted by external forces. A limited and closed state leads to ambiguity and silence, moving against expansion and development, and as a result, becomes a subversive culture. A nation whose language does not expand will not attain greatness or the superiority of merit over other cultures.
Limited and closed languages are those that remain stagnant and cannot transform into the language of modern science. The weakness of a language may stem from several factors: the absence of intellectuals and scientific elites, the lack of a healthy economy and wealth resources, and the absence of a strategic geographic position. Furthermore, being deprived of wealth, civilization, and trapped in outdated traditions leads to stagnation, regression, and decline.
Considering the growth humans have achieved, modern warfare has shifted from military confrontations to battles between cultures and civilizations. Techniques, industry, money, sports, art, music, and cinema now analyze and homogenize cultures. Colonization today, through all its non-military efforts, even under the guise of military strategies, has long-term, covert cultural agendas to weaken the religious convictions of people in these nations and impose humanism, secularism, and even a form of “Christianized Islam” on them. This means that Muslims in these countries remain Muslim in name but live according to American or British beliefs and Christian behaviors.
Here, we aim to discuss the language of the Holy Quran, its literature, and its specific culture. Our focus is on the literature of the sacred text of the Quran, not the common Arabic literature, which we will distinguish in the following sections. This language can guide the people of Iran and the world towards pure divine culture and scientific Shiaism. The language and literature of the Quran hold such foundational importance across all sciences that works like Nahj al-Balagha and Sahifa Sajjadiya elevate the limits of eloquence, and the Quran, as the final revelation, expresses its miraculous nature through its language. In the academic world, pioneering scholars are those who master the expression and delicacy of language, using each word according to the meaning for which it was wisely placed, much like the Quran itself.
Divine Linguistics
“Language” refers to the specific literature and communication shared by a group of people, a culture, and the essence of their identity. It is the sum of expressions that are mutually understood and accepted by a community. The vocal apparatus and, more importantly, the phonetic sounds of each language are tools used to express this culture and language. Therefore, every group has its own culture, literature, and words that are unique to it, and all these elements combined form what is called the “language” (لسان). The plural form “ألسنة” refers to the diversity of distinct cultures.
The “language of a people” refers to the language spoken by a group, as it communicates their intended meaning and reflects their essence. “Language of the sea” refers to the surface of the sea, as the sea’s stability and vitality rely on its surface. “Fluency of speech” applies to someone who speaks smoothly, conveying their meaning with ease and clarity. Thus, “language” does not refer to every utterance that flows from the mouth but specifically refers to the language that represents the culture and the tradition, wisdom, and belief system of a people.
Language is not merely a collection of words; it represents the thoughts, beliefs, and traditions of a community, conveyed through words. The term “dialect” refers to the specific style of pronunciation, structure, and form of language used by different communities. Language exists in various dialects and accents, and these dialects are the outward manifestation of a community’s language.
In contrast to dialects, the Quran does not concern itself with the variations in dialect but focuses on unifying all cultures under the banner of the word “Allah,” aiming for unity rather than division based on cultural or linguistic differences. The Quran’s approach to cultural unity means that all societies can coexist peacefully, while each group retains its own distinct dialects.
“Language,” as used in logic and linguistics, is clear, precise, and unambiguous. The complexity of meaning, however, arises in terms such as “twisting” (لوى), “tangling” (فتل), “coloring” (لون), and “intonation” (لحن). These terms suggest a form of complexity that obscures clarity and results in deviation from the intended meaning. The concept of “fiqh” (jurisprudence) involves understanding these complexities and knowing how to navigate them in the interpretation of texts.
Fiqh is not just about understanding the apparent meaning of words but about interpreting the underlying intent of the speaker. It involves understanding the nuances of language and the various deviations (such as intonation or linguistic shifts) to accurately interpret the message of the lawgiver. The true scholar of the law, or “faqih,” is one who can comprehend the meaning of both clear and complex expressions, understanding the deeper significance of the words used.
The Arabic Language and Its Role in the Quranic Revelation
The Arabic language, renowned for its precision in conveying meaning and the wisdom behind its lexical choices, was developed in a way that it could effectively transfer meanings through its vocabulary and syntax. Arabic, which regarded its literary culture as advanced and progressive, prided itself on its Arabic identity and the depth of meaning embedded in its words, a responsibility that was entrusted to the scholars and sages of the time.
With the revelation of the Holy Quran, Arabic reached its pinnacle of eloquence and intellectual flourishing. The scientific and literary expressions of the language were profoundly enriched by the divine, miraculous nature of the Quranic text. No eloquent Arab, linguist, literary scholar, or poet was left unaffected by the grandeur and potency of the divine speech in transferring profound meanings and divine truths. Their awe and admiration for the Quran led them to acknowledge that Arabic was the language of the Holy Quran. As a result, the Arabic language, with the descent of the Quran, experienced a significant leap in its growth. The Arabic of the Quran was not just the common spoken Arabic of the time; rather, it became a language of divine revelation and scholarly expression, distinct in its depth and refinement.
The Quran’s language was so precise, so rich in meaning, and so careful in its use of words that even the most eloquent speakers of Arabic could not help but bow in reverence to its unparalleled eloquence. Over time, this led to Arabic becoming the primary language of intellectual discourse, particularly during the golden age of Islamic scholarship in the 3rd to 5th centuries AH. Despite the fact that many of the leading scholars of this period were Persian, the Arabic language was used as the medium for their scientific and philosophical writings.
The Arabic language is characterized by a vast and varied vocabulary, endowed with remarkable power and eloquence, making it superior to many other languages in terms of its expressiveness and effectiveness. Today, English is regarded as the dominant language, not for its cultural and philosophical depth, but for its technological and industrial strength. Its superiority is based on its utility in modern industry, not on the wisdom that Arabic offers.
When Arabic absorbed the Quranic culture, by the 4th century AH, it had become the scientific language of the world. This intellectual and linguistic ascent was the result of the Quran’s divine guidance, not merely the efforts of scholars. The Quran elevated the Arabic language to a level where it became the dominant vehicle for all forms of knowledge, and this elevation was not due to the intellectual endeavours of the Arabs themselves, who had little standing in spiritual, philosophical, or scientific fields before the advent of Islam.
While the Arabs, despite their political dominance during the caliphates, especially in Spain, did not contribute significantly to the socio-economic or scientific status of the Arabic language, they carried the Quranic revelation within them as a linguistic treasure. However, the Arab contribution to science and intellectual thought was more limited, with the Persian scholars emerging as the prominent contributors to Islamic intellectual advancements.
The Arabs, while they wielded political power across vast Islamic lands, from the East to the West, including Spain, failed to provide the Arabic language with a prominent cultural, scientific, or economic role. For much of the past century, they have been subjugated by Western capitalist power, unable to establish the Quranic revelation as the guiding force in their society. Instead, they adopted the customs of their caliphates, which were later overshadowed by the Western powers.
Even in the pre-Islamic period, the Arabic language, despite its eloquence in works like the “Mu’allaqat” (Seven Odes), remained rooted in worldly concerns, focusing on the fleeting beauty of women and romantic themes. It lacked the deep scientific, ethical, and metaphysical reflections that would later emerge with the advent of Islam. The Quran, with its divine revelation, transformed the Arabic language into a vehicle of profound knowledge and insight, creating a space for intellectual and philosophical reflection.
The Arabic of the Quran, despite its deep roots in the Persian cultural sphere, is inherently distinct from the Persian language, especially in its religious and intellectual dimension. Persian, while it holds a great cultural and historical significance, does not carry the same weight in scientific and philosophical discourse that Arabic, due to its Quranic connection, does.
The Quran is the book of all human knowledge, and its language has the potential to elevate any nation that follows its teachings. As Persians, we revere the Arabic language of the Quran, considering it more significant even than our native tongue, for it provides us with the knowledge, guidance, and understanding that shapes our beliefs, philosophy, and worldview. However, this does not mean that we should neglect our own Persian language. Persian holds its own intrinsic value, embodying human virtues, ethics, mysticism, and pride.
The decline of the Arabic language of the Quran is attributed to external factors, particularly the lack of scholarly effort and intellectual vigour among its speakers, rather than any inherent flaw in the language itself. The Quranic Arabic possesses the unique capability to serve as the language of superior knowledge and truth, and this status is directly tied to the divine revelation that chose Arabic as the vehicle for its final message.
It is crucial to distinguish between the Arabic of the Quran and the colloquial Arabic that is spoken today. The Quranic Arabic is not simply a means of communication; it is a cultural and intellectual force. The Quran’s language is not merely eloquent, but it is a clear and unambiguous expression of divine truth: “This is a clear Arabic tongue” (Quran, 16:103).
Learning the language of the Quran requires more than just mastering the grammar and vocabulary of Arabic. It requires immersion in the Quran itself, an intimate relationship with the text, and a deep understanding of its meaning. The Quran does not encourage mere recitation; it encourages reflection, which can only occur when one is familiar with the Arabic language of the Quran.
The Arabic language of the Quran is the language of divine wisdom, containing all of human knowledge and reflecting the true nature of existence. Its vocabulary is not merely a collection of words, but a carefully constructed system designed to express the profound and divine truths of the cosmos. Understanding the Quranic Arabic is essential for true engagement with the text, and it requires a systematic approach to learning the language, particularly for the younger generations, to ensure that they can access the true depth and richness of the Quranic message.
As Quranic Arabic is a sacred and divine language, translating it into other languages always results in a loss of meaning and nuance. This is why the Quran never mentions translation, and why understanding the Quran requires an intimate knowledge of its original language. Translation, while useful for conveying basic ideas, cannot fully capture the richness of the divine message that is encoded in the Arabic of the Quran.
In the context of religious education, it is essential that children are taught the Quranic Arabic from an early age, not just to be able to read it but to understand and internalise its teachings. Translation cannot convey the full depth of the Quran’s knowledge, and as such, it is the responsibility of scholars and religious leaders to ensure that the language of the Quran is preserved and taught properly, so that future generations can access its divine wisdom directly.
The importance of understanding Quranic Arabic is highlighted by the fact that the word “Quran” itself is derived from the Arabic root that denotes “recitation” with understanding. To engage with the Quran effectively, one must read it slowly, reflectively, and with a true understanding of its meaning, a process that goes beyond mere memorisation or superficial reading. The Quran encourages deep reflection, and to do so, one must have a genuine connection with its language.
The Importance of Understanding the Sacred Language of Religion
Being unfamiliar with the language of religion and distanced from its essential preconditions, especially the sacred disposition, invalidates inferential propositions by stripping them of their truth-value.
The breadth, greatness, prominence, novelty, and value of the religious language are a product of the enlightened minds and the sacred hearts of its scholars. Just as in non-revelatory languages, such as Persian, the genius of figures like Hafez and Saadi has shaped the essence of the Persian language, making it the sweetest in the world, so too, the Arabic language of the Quran became a means for the intellectual elite of the Muslim world to express profound wisdom. It was these genius minds that transformed their words into proverbs and poetic expressions that have become ingrained in the cultural fabric of society, raising the intellectual level of a nation and elevating it to greatness in the eyes of other cultures. This, in turn, draws the attention of the global community, guiding them to the philosophical, technical, and industrial achievements of the Arabic-speaking world.
Some languages and cultures, through the efforts of their geniuses, evolve into international languages. For example, the emergence of geniuses such as Avicenna, who relied on the Arabic language, helped establish Arabic – the language of the Quran – as the dominant scientific language. Today, Western prominence is largely based on its economic, technical, and industrial strength. The language of nature, however, is that of common texts and is shared between humans and animals; it cannot distinguish humanity from other phenomena. Yet, the language of the geniuses is unique to humans, particularly intellectuals, and has the power to influence and integrate other cultures. This ability to assimilate stems from the intellects of these geniuses who, transcending the language of the common folk, create specialized discourse in their fields. These intellectuals, who are not confined to the material world, possess the capacity to influence and captivate the minds of others through their academic and scientific achievements.
Religious sciences, particularly in their ability to elevate the spiritual and intellectual faculties of human beings, owe much to the intellectuals who have been granted the sacred disposition and the divine light of guidance. These sacred geniuses have access to the sources of knowledge, step by step, and reveal the strategic and long-lasting attraction of the language of divine revelation. The magnificence of literature and language lies in the presence and influence of these intellectuals. Their absence or subjugation to the limited cultural frameworks of arrogant and self-serving rulers leads to the diminishment of a language’s prestige and power. This is why, in the clash of colonial civilisations, the intellectuals of other nations are subject to attacks on their reputation and physical well-being.
Unfortunately, the culture of distancing from the language of the Quran and its logical framework has created the false belief among some Muslims that the language of the Quran is only for a specific audience and that its understanding is restricted to those directly addressed by the text. This erroneous stance stems from a lack of familiarity with Quranic linguistics, leading some to attempt to explain and interpret the Quran through the lens of contemporary Arabic, even though the Quranic language is one of love, devotion, and proximity to the divine. The Quran is a book of friendship and closeness, understood only by those whom it deems worthy of this companionship. The Quran bestows a certain degree of closeness to all, and its system, as stated in the verse “None can touch it except the purified” (Quran, 56:79), requires both external and internal purity.
Thus, it is a grave error to compare the Quran to books of human effort and to prescribe educational methods meant for those books to the Quran. The Quran is unique both in its specialized content and in its ability to be accessible to the entire community: “And We have certainly made the Quran easy to remember, so is there anyone who will be reminded?” (Quran, 54:40).
One may recite the Quran with various readings and the most beautiful recitation, yet remain distant from the true closeness of this divine book, or worse, their recitation may lead them further from the divine realm and to greater loss, as the Quran says, “And it only increases the wrongdoers in loss” (Quran, 35:39). On the other hand, someone with little literacy might look at the written Quran and gain spiritual benefit and inspiration from it.
The basic sciences of Quranic literature, like its advanced sciences, require closeness, devotion, and the gift of a sacred disposition. Educational centres have long faced a crisis in Quranic linguistics, yet have failed to address it, resulting in a crisis of knowledge and spirituality that has distanced the aware and scholarly community from the noble teachings of the Quran and its scientific truths.
Unfortunately, the marginalisation that began with the coup at Saqifah led to the Quran’s language being disregarded, replaced by the language of the caliphal Arabic, and Muslims lost their intellectual connection to the language of the Quran, hindering their growth and progress.
Religious leadership, which is the loving guidance of an aware and pioneering people in science, is only possible through the divine light of leadership granted to the best and strongest among them. The distinction between the wali (spiritual leader) and the general populace lies precisely here: the wali, through divine guidance and the purity of their soul, is able to guide others spiritually.
The Quran, which is the book of all knowledge and divine understanding, does not value translations or interpretive methods, but rather calls on Muslims to learn its language. Just as a mother tongue is taught to children from an early age, the language of the Quran (not just the common Arabic language) should be taught from childhood, starting with phonetics and emotional connection to the Quran, not translation, interpretation, or abstract meaning. Later, the focus should shift to teaching pronunciation, then words, and then writing.
If literature encompasses fields like lexicology, morphology, syntax, etymology, orthography, writing composition, recitation, eloquence, rhetoric, poetics, and history of literature, the first four fields are essential foundational sciences in understanding the Quranic language.
Lexicology focuses on the meaning of individual words without considering their grammatical function in sentences, and it reports the meanings that are commonly used in the language, which may be influenced by regional or cultural tastes.
Etymology delves into the root of words, exploring their morphological families and the relationships among them to uncover the subtle meanings of each. This science seeks to understand the original meaning of a word and its roots to clarify its meaning. Etymology expands language by revealing its components and diversifying it, facilitating the creation of new meanings and words.
Morphology deals with the structural form of words and investigates the grammatical structure of words. This discipline plays a crucial role in understanding words’ internal forms and how they fit into syntactical structures.
Syntax, on the other hand, focuses on the relationships between words in sentences and provides an understanding of how the components of a sentence interact. This field ensures that the meaning is conveyed clearly and logically.
All these sciences are vital in comprehending the Quran’s language, but they require a deeper, sacred connection to fully appreciate the nuances and layers of meaning in the divine text. Understanding the substance of words precedes intellectual understanding, as the essence of meaning can only be unlocked through spiritual purity and philosophical insight.
The Language of Interpretation and the Culture of Revelation
We have previously mentioned that the first step towards understanding the Holy Qur’an is the recognition of the unique language of final revelation; a language that neither accepts translation nor allows for multiple interpretative methods. Instead, it must be learned directly in its original form, following the Qur’anic method of education, which is through immersion, companionship, inner purity, and spiritual discipline.
To comprehend the language of the Qur’an and grasp the profound knowledge and sciences embedded within it, one must be acquainted with the ta’wil (interpretation) of the Qur’an. The entry point to the rich content of the Qur’an is ta’wil. Ta’wil has two poles: the apparent and the hidden. The starting point of ta’wil is the apparent words of the Qur’an. Each word has an interpretation, and through the system of words and their arrangement in a sentence, it opens a particular domain of knowledge.
The scientific language of the Qur’an has both an apparent aspect, from which tafsir (exegesis) is derived, and a hidden aspect, to which this apparent language leads. Tafsir is extracted from the apparent words of the Qur’an and is confined to that surface level. Therefore, it is limited in presenting knowledge and wisdom. It is important to note that tafsir is about extracting the meaning and uncovering the surface of the words, not imposing external doctrines from other sciences upon it. Tafsir looks at the surface of the Qur’an, while ta’wil concerns itself with the inner truth and content. To truly acquaint oneself with the scientific language of the Qur’an, one must understand both tafsir and, more importantly, ta’wil.
While the term tafsir is found only once in the Qur’an, the root word “awwala” and its derivatives—such as ahl (family), awla (closer), yuwalu (to return to the truth), awliya (guardians), and ta’wil—have been used over four hundred times. This indicates the far broader source of knowledge and wisdom found in ta’wil compared to tafsir.
The language of the Qur’an is a free culture that encompasses everything. It does not encounter dead-ends and answers every question. It accompanies every seeker, guiding them to their specific perfection, not through theoretical guidance, but through a direct, external, and practical guidance that walks with the seeker at every stage, leading them to the essence of independent, undifferentiated being. This is the immense content of the Qur’an, which also distinguishes it from other divine books. The rich and limitless content of the Qur’an—being the identity card of existence and all phenomena—encompasses all knowledge and sciences. However, without understanding ta’wil, its language remains inaccessible. The scientific language of the Qur’an requires an understanding of ta’wil, rooted in the capacity to penetrate the depths of the Qur’an, achieved through sincere companionship, spiritual integrity, and the divine grace of the sacred gift or the imitation of one who possesses such a grace.
Understanding the language of ta’wil requires prior knowledge and training. One must deeply study the texts of earlier divine books, the sacred hadiths, and the Sahifa Sajjadiyya (the Psalms of Imam Ali Zayn al-Abidin), which contain truths, not mere realities. Moreover, finding a beloved and trustworthy teacher with the capacity for spiritual and intellectual discipline, along with a commitment to prayer and purification of the soul, are essential prerequisites for the study of ta’wil.
The Language of Exegesis
Familiarity with the language of the Qur’an consists of three domains: tafsir, ta’wil, and tahrif (corruption of meaning).
In tafsir, one must approach each verse with sincere contemplation and interpret it in isolation, giving each word its own unique, unified meaning—much like a focused study on the essence of love. There is no need to draw on other verses or apply external frameworks for explanation.
Corruption and Fallacy
In contrast to tafsir, which creates a connection between the apparent word and its true meaning, tahrif refers to the deliberate distortion of language, aimed at undermining the culture of the Qur’an, creating a counter culture, or fulfilling personal desires and worldly goals through the manipulation of language by a particular class of learned individuals. Tahrif is “the professional skill of a corrupter who gradually distorts the original meaning of the true text and introduces falsehoods, by offering meanings that only seem to align with the apparent words, but in fact mislead the mind towards incorrect and non-authentic meanings.”
Thus, tahrif is a skill of the learned, not ordinary individuals. The reason for the marginalisation of the Qur’an is the dominance of such learned individuals over the fate of Muslim societies and their scholarly institutions. They, using the tools of language, create fallacious arguments within the text, arguments that contain neither true knowledge nor wisdom but only a form of rhetorical skill. Knowledge and wisdom pertain to the essence and the hidden truths, while rhetorical skills concern the apparent aspects of reality.
The terms tafsir, ta’wil, and tahrif not only carry scientific content but also embody historical connotations related to past figures, particularly within the scholarly class, as seen in the written works analyzing texts and seeking their meanings.
A scholar of tafsir and ta’wil must be vigilant against the pitfalls of fallacious interpretations—especially those based on tahrif—and protect themselves from the poison of superficial readings and personal biases. They must stay firmly within the true understanding of the universe and its phenomena, avoiding distortion by the apparent realities and false personal desires, which create conflict and falsehoods.
The language of the Qur’an must be approached through tafsir, ta’wil, and the awareness of tahrif in order to access the infinite sciences and knowledge contained within this boundless ocean. Both tafsir and ta’wil are sacred paths to the truth, while tahrif is a demonic diversion aimed at spreading falsehood or promoting it under the guise of the apparent world, not the hidden truth, which is indestructible.
The Fallacy of Literalism
The most significant harm done by ordinary and unqualified individuals controlling scholarly institutions is the lowering of the standard of knowledge, a failure to penetrate the deeper layers of language, and the resorting to superficial approaches based on simplistic understandings of texts. The scientific language of the Qur’an is inherently complex and intricate, containing layers of ambiguity, innuendo, and sometimes veiled meanings. The context and circumstances of the words often involve subtle hints or states, which require a deep, philosophical understanding, beyond what ordinary people can offer.
This complexity is why penetrating the scientific language of Shia culture is a difficult task. While the language of ordinary Bedouins or urban dialects has been catalogued and studied, the true philosophical and deep structures of language, used by the intellectual and spiritual elites to communicate hidden truths, have often been neglected. The Shia scholarly tradition, containing such deep insights, was often only transmitted orally or hidden due to the oppressive circumstances of the time.
Therefore, only a true spiritual guide, one who has received divine guidance and possesses the sacred gift of wilaya (spiritual guardianship), can impart the deeper understanding of the Qur’an and its true meanings. This tradition of knowledge is what sustains the vitality, strength, and progress of Shia culture. The intrusion of ordinary individuals, who lack the necessary intellectual or spiritual depth, into this space only serves to distort and trivialise the profound language of the Qur’an.
The Wisdom of Word Selection in Meaning
The ordinary language of humans—used to transfer meanings and facilitate communication—is not significantly different from the natural language of animals. Animals also use a type of natural language or instinctual communication to convey their desires. However, humans are distinct in their ability to create and structure words intentionally for specific meanings. Religion, and the words associated with it, is not based on simple colloquial language but requires the use of a complex, philosophical, and academic language for deeper understanding. This necessitates a sophisticated study of language, and not just a surface-level understanding of its usage.
The words of the Qur’an were not randomly chosen but were selected with deep philosophical consideration, rooted in the intellectual traditions of the ancient Arabs. The placement of words and letters was highly intentional, with a focus on the relationship between sounds, meanings, and the way they relate to the spiritual and material worlds. This approach to language in the Qur’an is far more advanced than ordinary dialects or even the language used by Bedouins.
The ancient Arabs were known for their profound understanding of language, and the Qur’an respected and elevated this tradition, using it to communicate divine truths. The Qur’an, therefore, is not merely an example of the Arabic language as spoken by Bedouins, but a refined and elevated form of this language, suited for the transmission of the most profound spiritual meanings.
On the Meaning and Usage of Words and Expressions in the Qur’an
In this verse, the word gains a semantic weight due to the restrictive modifier (min qawlin)—that is, the word is considered as something to be believed in and accepted as a matter of conviction.
A word is considered a “kalam” if it has been designated to express a specific meaning. The term “kalam” not only includes the element of meaning but also involves the element of designation and is categorized into three types: letter, noun, and verb. In “kalam”, the act of designating the word for the transmission of a meaning is emphasized. The difference between “kalam” and “lugha” lies in the fact that, in addition to meaning, the term “lugha” also carries the culture of a particular community and incorporates the element of acceptance by a specific group. As such, it can reflect their general culture.
By “culture,” we refer to the accepted perceptions, beliefs, knowledge, common traditions, habits, and the general ways of life chosen by a specific group of people. These collectively form the usage of the “lugha.”
The term “kalam” serves as a framework for transmitting content—content that is referred to as “meaning,” and which is expressed in the form of the word. This content is presented in a structured manner without being influenced by human cultures in the course of its usage, which could lead to errors and misunderstandings. In essence, “kalam” carries the weight of both the word and the meaning and focuses on the act of designation. In contrast, “lugha” relates to usage, is affected by common cultural practices, and applies to general public use.
“Meaning” refers to the true essence (or reality) of the concept in question, which becomes conceptualized once it is mentally processed and understood.
The word “lugha” is among the obsolete terms in the Qur’an, having no usage within this sacred text. In contrast, “kalam” is used approximately 75 times. “Kalam” is widely used, whereas “lugha” is not. As we mentioned, “kalam” is the vessel for meaning, and its content is validated. “Kalam” thus holds the connection between word and meaning, and it applies to both; therefore, “kalam” and meaning are not oppositional in usage. This is unlike “lugha,” which can be contrasted with meaning and compared to it. The same property holds true for “lugha,” which is more restricted than “kalam” and, like it, conveys the connection between word and meaning. However, in Arabic literature, the term “kalam” has been adopted as the foundational subject of linguistic studies, not “lugha.” Similarly, the Qur’an does not use the term “lugha,” but frequently employs “kalam.”
In the Qur’an, “kalam” is also applied to external, non-verbal phenomena. It is possible that “lugha,” although an essential term for language in terms of usage and common cultural practice, refers to borrowed or unutilized words in Arabic, which the Qur’an does not employ. Given this, it is clear that the books discussing the “languages” of the Qur’an (such as those by Al-Farra, Abi Zayd, Asma’i, Haytham ibn Adi, Muhammad ibn Yahya Qit’i, and others who wrote “The Lexicon of the Qur’an”) do not follow the Qur’anic tradition. The proper term should be “The Words of the Qur’an.” The Qur’an is, in fact, the most profound text on the “science of words.” The Qur’an itself holds the true essence of the meaning of each word, and we must interpret words based on their precise philosophical implications within the Qur’an, not based on a linguistic understanding of them.
Arabic literature uses the term “kalam” as the core subject. We follow this tradition by referring to Arabic language (or “lisān”) and grounding our literary discussions on the concept of “kalam,” which respects the relationship between words and meanings as established in the process of designation.
According to reliable historical accounts, Amir al-Mu’minin Ali (A.S.) established “kalam” as the foundation of the science of grammar. To preserve the correct pronunciation of the Qur’an and safeguard the Arabic language, he outlined the principles of grammar for Abu al-Aswad, guiding him in the path of intellectual inquiry to establish the foundations of literary sciences. Amir al-Mu’minin divided “kalam” into three categories: noun, verb, and letter.
Abu al-Aswad reports: I entered upon Amir al-Mu’minin (A.S.) while he was gazing intently at the ground, deep in thought. I asked him: “What are you pondering, O Commander of the Faithful?” He replied: “In your speech, there is a lack of proper structure; thus, I intend to write a treatise on the principles of correct Arabic.” I said: “If you do so, you will preserve and sustain our language.” After three days, I returned, and he handed me a piece of paper that contained the following: “In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful, the Most Merciful of those who show mercy. The beginning of the Creator, the One with complete perfection, always merciful, specially affectionate. Every utterance consists of a noun, verb, or letter. A noun is something that informs about the referent (the denoted entity), a verb is that which reveals the action or movement of the referent, and a letter is a part of speech that conveys meaning but is neither a noun nor a verb.”
Then he said to me: “Continue with this method and add the truths you find to it.”
Abu al-Aswad reports: I compiled a collection of grammatical rules and presented it to him. One example was the “letters of the nominative” such as inna, anna, layta, la’alla, and ka’anna, but I had forgotten to include lakin (but). He asked: “Why have you left this one out?” I replied: “I did not consider it a nominative letter.” He said: “This too is a nominative letter; include it with the others.”
This narration illustrates the foundational nature of intellectual exploration, structured reasoning, and the creation of knowledge within the Shia tradition—particularly in the field of literary sciences, which were the subjects of narration. It keeps scholars from mere imitation and adherence to the knowledge of predecessors in all fields.
Amir al-Mu’minin (A.S.) says: “Things are either apparent or implicit, and there are things that are neither apparent nor have an implied reference. The superiority of scholars over one another lies in their ability to understand those things that are neither apparent nor have an implied reference.”
Abu al-Aswad reports: I compiled a piece of literature and presented it to him. One example was the nominal verbs, which I had written, but I had neglected the term lakin (however). He asked, “Why did you leave this out?” I replied, “I didn’t think of it as a particle of negation.” He said, “It is a particle of negation, add it to the others.”
In this passage, the phrase “Tattabi’ wa zid fi ma waqa’ laka. Wa’lam ya Aba al-Aswad an al-ashya’ thalatha: zahir wa mudmar wa shay’ la zahir wa la mudmar.” highlights the foundational principle of dynamic reasoning, systematic thinking, and the creation of knowledge, emphasizing the importance of discovering hidden truths that have no clear signposts. The true scholars are distinguished by their ability to explore and innovate based on those things that others have overlooked.
A word can be a noun, verb, or particle. In the context of education, the noun is considered the primary category of a word; however, from a philosophical perspective, the present tense verb is the core element in speech. A noun has a fixed and stable meaning, which is unchangeable, and it serves as a “signifier” or a reporter of independent meaning. The thing named or the referent is the signified meaning that is conveyed. The rules concerning the derivation of verbs and particles are limited and identifiable, in contrast to the noun, which is highly flexible and holds a specific meaning in any given context. Therefore, the most important task of the science of derivation (morphology) is to uncover the primary meaning of nouns, and the significance of derivation stems from this task.
In the science of derivation, although every noun has its own specific way of deriving its meaning, this discipline is not devoid of general propositions that guide the process of entering this field. Continuous practice and consistency with the general principles lead to the discovery of the particular and specific ways to identify the meaning of nouns. Based on this, it can be stated that while modification in verbs, as discussed in the science of conjugation, is extensive (with a verb having up to fourteen different forms), the noun, in contrast, only infrequently undergoes declension. Just as the science of conjugation deals extensively with changes in the form and meaning of verbs, it limits the discussion of nouns. However, in the science of derivation, the situation is the opposite, as modifications in nouns are much more abundant. Derivation of verbs is limited and rule-based, whereas most of the discussions in derivation are focused on empowering one to uncover the root and content of a noun.
Derivation in nouns causes variation in the root and content, and the derivation itself is of a semantic nature. In the derivation of a noun, sometimes the meaning of the second noun diverges so far from the original meaning that it becomes distinct from it. Finding the proximity of meanings resulting from noun derivation is a challenging task. The derivation in nouns is mostly limited in form, and most noun derivatives undergo semantic derivation.
Since the discussions related to verbs are limited and based on rules and are systematically conducted, the study of verbal derivation should come first, followed by a discussion of noun derivation in a separate chapter, where the relationships between nouns and their meanings can be examined. Although finding the exact meaning of any noun requires following its specific process and applying general rules is often restricted, habitual practice in uncovering these relationships enhances the ability to deduce the root meaning of a noun.
Noun derivation has two aspects: its formal and material aspects, which is referred to as morphological derivation, and it deals with the root and original letters of the noun (e.g., the root of the word “noun” originally being “samo”). It should be noted that the distinction between this aspect of derivation and the science of morphology is that morphology breaks down the word into its constituent parts, but the relation between this word and other similar words is not part of its subject matter. Unlike “morphological derivation,” which seeks these familial connections and considers them.
The second aspect is the semantic and content-related derivation, which examines the primary and contextual meaning of the root of the noun and what this root signifies in this specific noun form. This meaning connects the form of the noun with its essence and content. This connection can take one of the following three forms: minor, medium, or major derivation. It is essential to understand that the use and application of a word does not necessarily indicate the true or philosophical meaning intended in its creation. Unfortunately, the belief in the opposite of this proposition has led many disciplines, particularly jurisprudence, to misinterpret the primary meaning of words for many years, obscuring their true essence.
The “verb,” as defined by Imam Ali (AS), conveys the movement of the referent and has a transient meaning, subject to change and modification. The term “movement” is precisely used in this definition because movement is what creates time and places the verb in a specific temporal context, although it is not intrinsically part of the verb itself.
The “particle” refers to a meaning that does not exist within itself but instead creates meaning within other elements, either nouns or verbs. This is a non-substantial meaning. We have discussed the nature and structure of these three categories of words (noun, verb, and particle) in more detail in the “Externals of the Fundamentals” section.
The statement “all speech is either a noun, verb, or particle” consists of two independent propositions. These are structured as follows: “Speech is either a noun or something else, and if it is something else, it is either a verb or something else.” These are truly independent propositions, leaving no room for any other category and making the word exclusively fall into one of these three types.
It is important to note that literature, especially the study of derivation, requires a focus on lexicology and also the science of “Fuqah al-Lugha” (the jurisprudence of language). While the aim of lexicology is to understand the meaning in the context of usage and the apparent layer of application, derivation seeks to uncover the true and original meaning, tracing the essence and the foundation of the word to reach beyond its surface form. This requires a deeper understanding of the words’ true meaning, not just their superficial context. “Fuqah al-Lugha” serves as a foundational science for derivation.
Lexical Roots and Derivation
Language is formed by the alphabet and letters, which create words and serve as the medium for transmitting knowledge and fostering intellectual growth. The alphabet is based on letters, and letters are the building blocks of words. Lexical roots are the origin of all words. While letters themselves are not derived from anything and do not undergo morphological changes, they carry significant semantic weight in literature and derivation. This semantic weight is transferred to the word, and the understanding of its meaning can significantly depend on the letters used to form it. The combination of letters in a word also influences its meaning.
Some of the most influential letters in shaping the meaning of words are the “operative” letters, which can either be verbal or semantic. Thirteen types of such letters follow rules and patterns. The classification and naming of these different types of operative letters are based on intellectual reasoning and wisdom, requiring detailed discussion, which we intended to cover in our lectures but regrettably left unfinished due to interruptions.
Among the significant operative letters affecting the meaning of words are “prepositions” (known as “harf jar”). These prepositions impact nouns, “dragging” their meaning towards decline. There are many such prepositions, and they are powerful in their application.
Within the study of words, along with verbs, semantically similar words are also discussed. The study of the underlying structure of these words and their use in various derivational contexts holds significant importance in the discipline of “semantics” (ilm al-ma’ani). However, when discussing letters, we do not refer to the mere initial combination of letters from several words to abbreviate them, such as “Bismillah” in Arabic or “NAJA” in Persian.
The discussion continues with regard to lexical roots. The term “ma’jam” comes from “Ajam,” meaning “unclear” or “incomprehensible.” If the meaning of a letter is considered incomprehensible, then it would be regarded as “meaningless.” Words composed of meaningless or purposeless combinations of letters cannot form meaningful constructs. Both the breakdown of words into their essential parts and the purposeful combination of these parts are necessary for meaningful expression.
In addition, letters significantly influence the meaning of words, and their combination can create a specific semantic “tendency” in a word. Hence, a detailed discussion of their effect on language is warranted.
The identification of the infinitive is contingent upon the external occurrence of the verb, and the occurrence of the verb in the outside world is a natural matter. However, the infinitive is constructed from the verb; that is, the formation of the infinitive is a matter of convention—rather than natural—and is designed for the purpose of education. In the context of learning, the infinitive and the noun are considered the essence of speech, a principle grounded in educational convention and not in external reality. This is similar to how, in the science of logic, several propositions are taught as axiomatic truths to students of knowledge, although advanced logic—beyond the scope of education and intended for researchers—rejects these axioms.
Thus, in the educational context, the basic unit of a word is considered to be the letters, and the essence of speech is regarded as the noun (infinitive). However, the natural and philosophical foundation of derivation is the simple present tense verb.
The present tense (from the Arabic root “ضرع”) means softness. The present tense carries with it the gradual, soft, and fluid passage of time, which is why it is referred to as “مضارع = softened.” The present tense is free from any harshness or rigidity. It does not merely signify a future or anticipated event, but rather it emphasizes the gentleness of time and the ability to stretch and bend with it. A person living in the present tense, in the moment, is flexible—not tied to the past, nor overly anxious about the future.
The term “ضرع” is used for the udder, in reference to the soft bed it provides for nursing. The essence of modesty and humility is embedded in this term. “Tadarru‘” (humbling oneself) also connotes softness, free from arrogance. In contrast to softness is roughness, which leads to transgression and oppression. The word “ضرع” is closely related to “رضع” (suckling) and “رضى” (contentment). “Dari‘” and “Radhī‘”—like “ilm” (knowledge)—are words that refer to meaning. A word’s meaning is dependent and requires a place, lacking any external counterpart; whereas the noun for essence is independent, having a real-world counterpart and not requiring a specific place.
The present tense, by virtue of its relationship to time, carries with it a softness. This softness dictates that time must flow gradually. The past, by contrast, has already passed and thus does not carry the same softness of time. The present tense is a time that arrives softly. Time is so soft and gradually passing that it is often overlooked or ignored. The term “Murdi‘ah” (nurse) also reflects the softness of breastfeeding.
Thus, the essential form of time is the present tense. The past, having already passed, lacks both softness and harshness, even though the same time once passed smoothly. The future, in contrast to the past, carries with it a sense of anticipation. If time that is coming is considered future, it is referred to as “مستقبل.” It is important to note that the meaning of softness is necessarily related to time, but the word “future” specifically refers to the upcoming time with its gradual occurrence, emphasizing the anticipation and the gradual nature of its arrival. Future tense verbs are weighty and require significant energy, just as their two syllables in pronunciation make them more difficult to utter. This is why future tense verbs are less commonly used, with the present tense—more fluid and soft—being preferred.
Synonymy and Shared Meaning
We have established that the root word is the essence of speech. A root word carries only a single meaning. A word cannot have multiple meanings. Not only can a root word not have multiple meanings, but even individual letters cannot convey multiple meanings; each letter carries only one meaning, defined by its unique characteristics and the context in which it is used.
Each fundamental meaning has several necessary implications, which, together with contextual clues, are used in the appropriate context. This is a matter of usage, not of the formation of words, which is our focus here. Therefore, we should not confuse the necessary implications or connotations of a meaning with its primary meaning. Every word is designated for a single meaning, and no word can carry multiple meanings, nor can multiple words represent the same meaning. Hence, synonymy and homonymy are not applicable in the formation of words. Although in common usage, these distinctions are often ignored, leading to colloquial or general language practices. Indeed, words can oppose and contradict each other, but in philosophy, the extreme opposition between two things does not necessarily result in contradiction. Moreover, every word is designated for the spirit of meaning, as well as its entirety, but not all words have the same unity in meaning to form synonymy.
Some words have a close relationship in meaning, which leads to their interchangeable use in everyday language. However, for proper understanding of a word’s meaning, it must be traced back to its root form. Synonyms should not be used in understanding meanings, as no language possesses truly synonymous words. Words that have a similar root or share certain letters can be close in meaning, but this proximity is distinct from true synonymy, and even in this proximity, subtle differences in meaning remain.
A word, in its essence, has only one meaning. However, the meanings that enter the human mind or heart are numerous because the mind and heart possess a very subtle or abstract quality and high-speed capacity for processing. In response to the myriad meanings they encounter, words, when faced with these meanings, are used with contextual clues or synonymous terms to represent multiple meanings, although subtle differences remain intact. This applies to common usage, not precise scholarly or scientific usage. In scholarly contexts, due to the scarcity of words and the abundance of meanings, it is unreasonable to use multiple words for the same meaning. The relationship between a limited material word and its meaning is analogous to the relationship between finite material phenomena and infinite abstractions.
Loanwords
To understand the substance of words, we must first determine their origin: whether they are native (Arabic in Islamic and Quranic research) or borrowed (from Persian, Hebrew, Turkish, Latin, or other languages).
Understanding the origin of a word and its cultural and linguistic context is crucial and should never be neglected. This task requires organizing a database of vocabulary, which should go beyond the work of conventional dictionaries and fully distinguish between native and borrowed words.
Preserving language requires a national effort to create a comprehensive database of vocabulary that is both functional and up-to-date. This database, supported by wise scholars and literati, can help identify and combat the degradation of language and culture while providing a roadmap for the advancement of language sciences. It must serve both Persian and Arabic equally, as Persian is our mother tongue and national language, while Arabic is the language of our faith and Shia tradition. It is evident that the tree of Sharia thrives in the soil of our homeland, where faith and meaning come to life among the people.
Language, culture, and religion are what distinguish countries and nations.
Understanding the Types of Word-Meaning Relations
Every word signifies a meaning. Once we identify the meaning of a word, with the necessary signs for recognizing its true meaning and its referent, we must also understand the type of relation between the word and its meaning.
This relation can be direct, matching, or broad and intended, or it can be indirect, involving connotative or implied meanings. Those who do not understand the type of word-meaning relationship fall into casual, superficial use of language. Thus, understanding the types of word-meaning relations—especially the implications and connotations of words—is essential for engaging with the Quranic language. This type of study requires intellectual rigor and philosophical reasoning, which are discussed in detail in fields like jurisprudence and logic.
The Quran cannot be fully understood or appreciated without understanding these linguistic implications. It is important to note that understanding word-meaning relationships is a rational activity, situated within the realm of philosophical conventions, not within the field of everyday lexicography, which focuses only on the primary meaning of words and does not delve into the nuances of their relationships to meaning.
To properly examine a word’s derivation and its intended meaning, it is necessary to analyze its phonetics and phonology, exploring its rhythm and structure. This detailed examination of word-meaning relationships prepares the ground for deeper interpretation and understanding of the Quranic text.
This step is crucial in moving beyond superficial interpretations and appearance-based readings.
The study of language requires tools from modern sciences, just as medical sciences have benefited from technological advances. In linguistic and lexical research, the use of industrial tools can enhance the precision of understanding, especially in phonology. The traditional approach to linguistics should be set aside in favor of more advanced methods that involve the use of technology and industrial tools for better analysis.
While technology can advance fields like linguistics and phonetics, it does not alter the essential nature of sacred disciplines like Islamic jurisprudence, which deals with divine knowledge and human ethical reasoning.
In fields like jurisprudence, knowledge is related to practical understanding and human insight, not mere conceptual accuracy. Linguistic studies, on the other hand, are part of the tools and methods used to acquire knowledge, but they are not the essence of that knowledge itself.
This Surah is one of the comprehensive ones that boldly challenges the staunch followers of earlier scriptures and, in fact, all deniers. It places the objections raised against the previous scriptures into discussion and debate, addressing them meticulously. In this sense, it is rich, self-sufficient, and dignified.
This Surah is not only the longest chapter of the Qur’an but also contains the longest and most profound verses. From this perspective, it can be seen as the blossom of the Qur’an.
Persistently reciting Surah Al-Baqarah, while maintaining vitality and liveliness, opens the inner being and brings one closer to the hidden truths of existence. Surah Al-Baqarah, being a Medinan Surah, is particularly suited for advanced societies, those with scientific, specialized knowledge and a powerful discourse.
The phrase “bakar al-hudhud al-ardh” (the cow of the hoopoe digs the earth) means that the hoopoe, with its head lowered, digs into the earth to find out whether water is there or not. This refers to the act of digging the earth.
The cow is called “Baqarah” because it is one of the animals known for its strength, dignity, weight, power, self-sufficiency, and, most importantly, its nobility. Like a champion, it walks with grace, drinking only from clean water and not indulging in frivolous behavior. In contrast, the donkey, which is known for its light-headedness and lack of nobility, walks aimlessly, jumping and kicking. This is why the donkey is not given horns, to keep it weak and prevent it from causing harm. The cow’s large eyes are symbolic of wisdom and discernment. The donkey’s eyes, however, though considered among the most beautiful in the animal kingdom, exude a sense of peculiar dignity.
Both the lion and the falcon are referred to as “Baqar” because their eyes serve the same function as the cow’s — they can scrutinize and observe every animal, large or small, and nothing escapes their notice.
In the story of the Israelites, the cow was chosen for its association with wisdom in resolving disputes, which is consistent with its sharp perception. The cow also holds great respect and popularity among Hindus, and this respect is not without philosophical grounding.
The term “Balagh” refers to reaching the truth of oneself. A person reaches physical maturity when they gain the ability to procreate, thus arriving at the truth of their body, which is derived from sperm. Intellectual maturity is attained when one reaches reasoning and wisdom. Spiritual maturity, on the other hand, is the attainment of the soul. The soul represents the ultimate assurance that manifests in a person, with virtues such as bravery, courage, and justice being its attributes.
The term “Balagh” shares a semantic proximity with “Wusul” (arrival), which refers to reaching a goal that is not inherent and does not belong to the person. However, “Balagh” implies arriving at a goal that is harmonious with one’s nature and has always been an integral part of the individual. For instance, to be competent in law and religious duty, one must attain maturity, but the mystic seeks “Wusul” — the arrival at a destination that is not a return to the beginning, but rather the outcome of one’s actions. Whereas the physical maturation process is the transition from sperm to the power of procreation.
Exaggeration is derived from the same root. The three forms of exaggeration in Arabic — “Fa’ul,” “Fa’al,” and “Mifa’al” — convey varying degrees of intensity, and each form has its own nuance. We have discussed their differences in the section on “Semantic Proximity” in this book.
“Taba’” refers to following or pursuing something or someone, a form of imitation where nothing is added from oneself, resulting in behavior that lacks originality. This type of imitation is superficial and external. “Taba’” shares a close semantic meaning with “Talu,” which implies following someone else’s path while adding something new to it, thus avoiding the stagnation of mere imitation. Moreover, this kind of following is continuous, ordered, and connected.
“Jaa” refers to a soft, continuous, and harmonious arrival, one that is constant across all moments in time.
“Junoon” (madness) is a disorder that disrupts a person’s attention and concentration, leading to actions that lack focus. The mad person is perpetually engaged in activity, seemingly to avoid confronting their mental chaos. Madness, by nature, involves disarray and confusion, which ultimately hides the true desires of the person. The most visible sign of madness is the disorganization and accumulation of tasks that reveal the individual’s mental disturbance.
Foolishness, cruelty, and madness all exist on a spectrum, with varying degrees of intensity. For instance, the Qur’an describes extreme cruelty as: “Then, after that, your hearts became hard, like stones, or even harder.” [24] This metaphor is used because, in ancient times, nothing harder than stone was known. Today, however, diamonds — and more recently, hexagonal diamonds — are considered the hardest materials.
Extreme cruelty manifests in those who rise to positions of power and authority but are plagued by the fear of losing it. Their hearts become as hard as steel from the continuous pleasure of authority and the fear of downfall. Such individuals, in their pursuit of power, may commit numerous injustices, and in doing so, shed their humanity. It is as though they lose their human skin, and only cruelty remains. This is referred to in the Qur’an as “Shiqaaq Ba’eed” [25].
In fact, a great deal of oppression and sin must accumulate within a person to generate the cruelty necessary to carry out horrifying crimes, which they do without remorse. These individuals often manipulate religious texts to justify their wrongdoings: “And We made their hearts hard so that they alter the words from their places.” [26]
The most evident trait of extreme cruelty is hypocrisy. Although there are few of them, one of these individuals can be enough to tarnish and destroy a religion, especially if they rise to positions of power where they control the fate of the people. In Hell, such individuals hold a high status, and their punishment is eternal. Some may commit crimes so heinous that their only fate is the grave. They are particularly oppressive towards the weak and the foolish in society, eventually facing the consequences of their deeds. The saying “The tears of the burnt cause the flames to rise” reflects how their cruelty leads to widespread social unrest and rebellion.
It is important to note that cruelty and obstinacy are disorders of the heart and may not manifest in one’s outward actions, unlike “Fusq” (corruption), which is primarily an action-oriented term. One can be a virtuous person outwardly but possess a cruel heart, or they may be corrupt in their actions but not cruel at heart.
Understanding the disorders of foolishness, madness, and cruelty is essential for child upbringing, as familiarity with these traits can serve as a preventive measure.
“Hajj” refers to the defense of an accepted and established matter in the face of ignorance. It shares a semantic proximity with “Dalla” (to lead). “Ihtijaj” (argument) is a defense that involves steadfastness, insistence, and obstinacy — an effort to not lose a position. It may also involve forceful, dogmatic, and erroneous arguments. In contrast, “Istidlal” (reasoning) is a defense aimed at discovering and reaching the truth, to guide and confirm a claim. The people of theology often engage in “Ihtijaj,” while reasoning is noble and liberating. In the Qur’an, Surah Al-An’am is known for its discourse and argumentation, with over twenty instances of “Qul” (Say) used in defense. Though “Ihtijaj” may rely on reasoning, reasoning itself is softer, nobler, and more fluid.
“Hajar” refers to a limit or boundary that has no root, unlike a mountain (“Jabal”) that has firm, established roots. “Jibillī” refers to something deeply ingrained in one’s nature. “Mahjoor” refers to something that is limited in its possession, and “Dhi Hajar” describes someone with mental limitations, whose reasoning is confined to clear-cut boundaries, beyond which there is no access to falsehood. “Tajir” refers to land that has been enclosed with stones, a boundary that cannot be passed. Similarly, “Tajhur” denotes something that has hardened and can no longer accept flexibility.
“Huzn” (sorrow) refers to a profound sadness and discomfort over an event that occurred in the past, which is fundamentally internal, psychological, and beyond prevention. It arises naturally and cannot always be counteracted by positive thinking. It differs from “Khauf” (fear), which is emotional pain about something that might happen in the future. “Khushu” (humility) refers to a humble consideration of another, stemming from either the awe or power of the other person or a love-based respect, in which case the humility becomes more profound and genuine.
“Hasan” (beauty) refers to both internal and external beauty, while “Ihsan” (benevolence) implies an outward expression of goodness, whether obligatory or voluntary. “Hasanah” is a singular act of goodness in contrast to a “Sayyiah” (evil act). Both good and evil have degrees, but the degrees of one do not overlap with the other.
“Jamal” refers to the outward appearance, while “Jalal” refers to the manifestation of power and authority. In contrast, “Husn” combines both outward and inward beauty, and it is a more complete form of beauty.
“Fadl” (grace) is a non-obligatory act
. It can involve sending a messenger or revealing an answer to a query, similar to a gift. Mercy, then, is a grace that involves relief or remedy. “Al-Fadl” is a wider term for favor, but “Rahmah” applies more directly to personal compassion.
This kind of nuance is found throughout the Qur’an, and the terms hold distinct shades of meaning.
The beginning of wisdom lies in directing one’s gaze solely towards the truth and grandeur of God, as expressed in the words: “And do with me what You deem fitting, and do not do with me what I deserve.” The culmination of wisdom, on the other hand, is found in severing all reliance on the Divine and not looking to the hand of the Creator as a beggar would. It is simply the manifestation and revelation of the divine presence, meaning “I am God.”
It is important to note that religious rulings are contingent matters that must be understood in their entirety, with all their aspects and subtleties, in order to derive the appropriate ruling for each. The divine saints, upon reaching the state of annihilation, where all outward forms, desires, ignorance, and foreignness cease, attain a position where they no longer transgress against the rights of God or the rights of creation. At this point, they become the agents of divine will, endowed with the power to act, influence, and possess the authority to command. Ordinary phenomena, too, possess a ruling. The oppressed, the believer, and the Qur’an each possess their own ruling. The ruling of the oppressed is their cry, and the ruling of the believer is their divine grace. If this cry falls upon someone, or if this grace is withdrawn from someone, their lineage will face ruin in both this world and the Hereafter. A ruling exists for every phenomenon.
News (خبر): A precise and accurate awareness gained through sensory experience, combined with the power to act upon that knowledge. A person who possesses both deep knowledge and the ability to implement it is termed “خبره” (expert). “علیم” refers to one who is simply knowledgeable, without necessarily possessing the capacity to act on that knowledge. Thus, “خبیر” or “خبره” is superior to “علیم” because it implies both knowledge and the ability to act. “خبیر” refers to the outward appearance, denoting knowledge acquired through sensory perception.
News Sentence: (وَمَا تُنْفِقُونَ إِلَّا ابْتِغَاءَ وَجْهِ اللَّهِ). This negative and restricted sentence is a form of imperative command, but since giving in the way of God’s face is a significant task, it is not phrased as a direct command so as not to impose a heavy burden on people. The believer should not show others their generosity; rather, it is better to keep such actions discreet. This rhetorical style does not aim to command directly, thus making the action discretionary and removing the obligation. This is one of the techniques the Qur’an uses to present religion not as a system of strict orders, but as a voluntary and internalized practice. Psychologically, humans instinctively need to feel the weight of an obligation before they can submit to it, whereas direct orders or commandments may provoke resistance.
The term “ابتغاء” in this verse refers to “seeking the beloved” and is akin to the idea of “approaching God” and “gradual progression towards Him.” The verse avoids directly stating the heavy concept of “God’s face” but instead focuses on the incremental process of seeking closeness.
It is worth noting that some of the declarative sentences in the Qur’an are meant to serve as a general rule or warning. When a statement has a clear and self-evident meaning but can also serve to express something broader, this is called “ta’ammum” (generalization). Such a statement may also serve as a form of threat, like: (غُفْرَانَکَ رَبَّنَا وَإِلَيْكَ الْمَصِيرُ). The fact that all will return to God is evident, but by invoking the plea for forgiveness, it carries an implicit warning.
Mistake (خبط): “خبط” refers to a softness stemming from weakness or fragility. “خبت” (with a dotted “t”) refers to a smooth, broad surface, signifying softness, gentleness, or humility derived from authority. The term “اخبات” refers to the confidence and humility with which individuals traverse difficult terrain. Those who undertake this journey with faith and trust in God will succeed, never losing hope or fearing obstacles.
“خبط” in its primary form indicates an initial act of error or weakness, whereas “تخبّط” (with an emphasis on repetition) refers to a secondary, more passive or reactionary form of error. The Qur’an states: (الَّذِينَ يَأْكُلُونَ الرِّبَا لاَ يَقُومُونَ إِلَّا كَمَا يَقُومُ الَّذِي يَتَخَبَّطُهُ الشَّيْطَانُ مِنَ الْمَسِّ). “تخبّط” implies a chaotic, erratic state brought on by external forces, such as the psychological and emotional turmoil that comes with usury. Usury causes mental instability, and its effects manifest as erratic behavior, akin to someone being “struck” by the devil’s influence.
“Touch” (مسّ) refers to a form of external interaction with a person or object, while “قهر” or ” ضربه” implies a more severe physical impact. In the context of usury, it is not just the physical aspect of the act that causes harm, but its psychological and spiritual effects. The effects of “مس” are subtle, often imperceptible, but they gradually weaken the individual’s soul and render them susceptible to the whisperings of evil.
Hidden (خفى): Refers to anything concealed, even those things that remain hidden in the mind and are not consciously recognized. “Hidden” implies that something is not only unseen but also unacknowledged by the individual. In the Qur’an, it is said: (إِنَّ اللَّهَ لَا يَخْفَى عَلَيْهِ شَيْءٌ فِي الْأَرْضِ وَلَا فِي السَّمَاءِ). God is fully aware of everything, whether on Earth or in the heavens. This statement underscores the comprehensive and all-encompassing knowledge of God, which transcends human limitations.
Creation (خلق): The special act of creation that forms the foundation of every phenomenon, and which refers to an inherent and essential attribute. The term “خلق” is closely related to “بدء” (beginning) and “ظهر” (appearance), but while “بدء” indicates a starting point, “خلق” pertains to the essence or intrinsic nature of something. “خلق” refers to the inner nature or constitution of a thing, whereas “ظهر” denotes its external manifestation.
“خلق” differs from “بدء” in that it does not imply the element of precedence or novelty. Creation involves the inherent makeup of a thing, while “بدء” refers to the initiation or emergence of something new.
Fear (خوف): Fear arises from an elevated state or position, concerning future events that can be anticipated or prevented. Fear is a force that drives action, brings precision, and fosters resilience. It typically affects those who are rational and strategic in their thinking. In contrast, individuals who lack reason, such as the mentally ill, experience less fear. Divine saints, however, are shielded by their spiritual fortification and do not experience fear.
It is important to note that if someone occupies a high position without deserving it, or if someone who feels insignificant is placed in a position of authority, they will often be overcome by anxiety and fear. A person who has been degraded from a young age or experienced humiliation will be particularly susceptible to fear. Fear is closely related to “sadness,” “awe,” and “affection.”
Sadness pertains to a form of anxiety over the past, whereas “affection” involves a desire to protect oneself from harm, and “awe” refers to a reverent fear of God’s majesty and greatness.
This translation retains the conceptual depth of the original text and adheres to academic language appropriate for scholarly discussion. Let me know if you’d like further revisions or clarifications!
Māhd: Freedom, ease, and transience; for this reason, it is referred to as a cradle. Mihād: A resting place. While the word mihād has more letters than māhd, the meaning of māhd is derived from mihād. The rule of “زيادة الألفاظ تدل على زيادة المعاني” (The increase in words indicates an increase in meanings) is governed by the root of the word, and according to this, it holds true. Therefore, in some words, an increase in letters reduces the meaning. Mihād loses the transient meaning present in māhd and becomes a “fixed place.” A place, structure, and form that are established according to natural laws and human actions become firm and unbreakable.
Naba’: A direct and unconditional announcement, which has no implication of force, compulsion, or the occurrence of the event itself. Nabi is derived from the same root, with the ʿain having a hamza, which indicates an infirmity. Therefore, it cannot be attributed to the prophets. This word shares meanings with khabar (news) and bashara (glad tidings), and these terms should be consulted to understand the distinctions between them.
Nisāʾ: Women. A general collective noun without a singular form, referring to all women, including wives, daughters, mothers, sisters, grandmothers, and others. This word carries a non-mutating alif, indicating elevation, greatness, and exaltation. Whenever one wishes to speak of women with grandeur and dignity, this term is used. Niswah (a variant) is a collective noun that, due to its vowel pattern, conveys a sense of diminishment and is used to belittle women. In Islam, women are considered free and owners of their own souls and wealth, and thus, they are the active party in the marriage contract, with men merely consenting to it.
Nafs: Ease. The term nafs refers to the comfort and tranquility it brings. Without the nafs, eyes would not see, ears would not hear, hearts would not love, and souls would not lament. The nafs has desires—meaning inclinations. These inclinations are aimless and endless, requiring education and direction. To train the nafs, it should be immersed in good deeds and lawful fulfillment—rather than in destruction, prohibition, or abandonment—so that it can breathe freely. In the light of a unified purpose, it will attain purity.
The concept of refining the nafs is not about extinguishing desires or eliminating its passions, but rather about aligning those desires with balance and intention. The desires of the nafs are the alchemy of the material world, and satisfaction, with willpower, leads to the full expression of love—if balance is maintained, without excess or deficiency.
The nafs is driven by desires; like a child, it lacks love in its true sense. Desires are fleeting and replaceable, often becoming forgotten or overlooked. Through spiritual growth, love arises from the nafs. While desire fades with distractions, love is the domain of one who has transcended the nafs and become a possessor of the heart. Love belongs to the soul.
Nafaqa: An unnatural exit or sudden depletion. The term munāfiq (hypocrite) is derived from this notion because the faith they display is not natural, lacks substance, and is devoid of depth; it adopts various forms without true essence. A hypocrite is often wordy, using multiple languages. It is essential to note that hypocrisy in people arises either from weakness of the soul and fear or is a deliberate, strategized attempt for influence, power, and subversion, which is no longer weak but intentional.
Infāq: The unnatural expenditure or outflow of wealth. In its natural sense, it refers to legal exchanges such as buying and selling. God, however, buys this unnatural act at the highest price to ensure that the person making the expenditure does not suffer loss in this unnatural process. Higher than infāq is īthār (self-sacrifice), where a person gives all they possess—even if they need it, or even when they don’t. Īthār is not just about ease in giving but is also characterized by generosity and abundance. In contrast to scarcity or miserliness, which involves reluctance and tightness, infāq is more frequent and widespread, not necessarily requiring sincerity or high virtues. However, in terms of quality and impact, īthār is far more significant than infāq, even though it may be less frequent.
In lexicographical sources, nafqa is interpreted as nafd (to be spent), and these two terms share similar meanings due to the common initial letters. Nafaqa represents an unnatural or non-natural completion, while nafd signifies natural depletion. The Qur’an says: “What you have will come to an end, but what is with God is everlasting” (Qur’an 35:37). Therefore, nafd denotes natural depletion, while nafqa refers to unnatural expenditure.
However, our goal here is not to engage in the teaching of classical logic, nor to present the rules of modern (mathematical) logic, nor to discuss critical thinking, the methodology of science, or the philosophy of logic. Rather, we aim to highlight some of the essential philosophical foundations and their impact on logical rules, as well as on the development of a new practical and epistemic logic termed “human logic” or “scientific logic” — a subject that will only be explored in the scope of this book, which merely offers a glimpse into our logical perspectives and their profound impact on other sciences. Although we will inevitably need to reference some of the rules of both classical and modern logic, along with critical thinking and the philosophy of logic, the detailed explication of the issues raised here can be found in their more comprehensive sources. It is hoped that further elaboration, refinement, and dissemination of this logic will be undertaken by scholars.
Logic, while an instrument for philosophy, is itself grounded in philosophical presuppositions and is subject to them. Logic originates from philosophy and draws from the ontology and epistemology of systems. Logical relationships emerge from the objective world, of which thought is also a phenomenon, and are discovered through the wisdom and rational language of science, understanding, and thought — a common language shared by all languages. History of logic demonstrates that logical concepts and rules have always been the domain of philosophers, although in recent decades some mathematicians, driven by concerns related to mathematics and the peculiar propositions of mathematics, its language, the realm of numbers, and the intuitive understanding of mathematical objects, have contributed to logic, bringing order to it. These mathematicians primarily focus on algorithmic problems, instructions for problem-solving in computers, and the interrelations that do not necessarily establish deductive relations. While it is true that mathematics, being a true science, can serve as a foundation for logic, providing it with a language and structure, just as mathematics can underpin the natural sciences, particularly in terms of statistical analysis of a phenomenon, logic — before relying on mathematics — is rooted in philosophy and ontology. Logic and mathematics, both being epistemic sciences, differ fundamentally. The former constructs definitions and arguments, seeking a clear and logical path toward truth, while the latter symbolises this knowledge into mathematical objects. Philosophy, rational understanding, and mysticism aim for the essence of existence and its true meaning.
Understanding by human beings is not the criterion for truth; the criterion of truth lies in external discovery, which is called “knowledge.” Science can align with this external truth and thus be valid and accurate. The basis of logic, both in philosophy and in the human sciences, is the proposition. However, the proposition is not the basis of mathematics, which is detached from any given proposition. The definitions of propositions in terms of numerical data, figures, and mathematical objects do not hold universally, distinguishing the logic of mathematics from that of other sciences.
As philosophy often revises and innovates upon historical paradigms, so too does logic, based on this philosophical understanding, undergo profound changes. Logical rules — whether from classical or modern logic — are rational, not conventional, and their laws are discoveries, not agreements. The realm of thought pertains solely to rational ideas. However, the fact that logic is rooted in philosophy does not imply that logic, which is a conceptual science, should be conflated with philosophy, which is concerned with the objective reality of things. Yet, logic cannot sever its connection with the ontological aspect of reality and is necessarily concerned with it.
Logic concerns the mental operations and forms of propositions, considering their material and meaningful reality. It aims to discover the correct method of thinking in order to achieve knowledge and valid inferences. These laws are universally applicable and hold only if they encompass all reasoning without exception. However, all phenomena surrounding us are relative objects, and nothing can be absolute. Everything is constrained by relativity, which, although a product of the mind, shapes our judgments. Only in an absolute state, devoid of name or form, can something exist outside these boundaries. Thus, logic must acknowledge the mental relativity within the domain of realities and honour the “phase logic” that respects these mental perspectives. Truth alone holds value and validity. The science of the soul is merely an intellectual determination, focused on these relative mental realities and seeking accurate perception and judgment based on them. Truth, being absolute, cannot be comprehended conceptually. It transcends mere thought, encompassing only limited phenomena, and thus, science itself remains relative and restricted.
Truth is inextricably linked to justice; when a reality is just, it becomes the text of truth. If it lacks justice, it remains only a mere reality, albeit one with determinations and identity.
In logical reasoning, the process involves deriving a proposition called the “result” from one or more premises. Logical deduction consists of a premise and a result. The notion of validity refers to a structure that adheres to logical principles, where the result necessarily and conclusively follows from the premises (in its formal definition of validity). If the premises are true, the result cannot be false. Validity, in this context, is defined in terms of truth.
Deductive reasoning may lead to valid, productive conclusions or to invalid, fruitless ones. However, truth and falsehood are attributes of propositions and statements, not of the reasoning process. The necessary steps leading from premises (assumptions) to a conclusion, forming a proof, constitute a solution to the problem. This process, if it ensures necessity, is deductive; otherwise, it is inductive. Therefore, knowledge is of three types: acquired, intuitive, and theoretical. Theoretical knowledge is derived through logical reasoning, while inductive knowledge is based on trial and error. Thus, the nature of induction and experience differs from that of deduction, and these should not be conflated.
If a claim in reasoning is true and accompanied by necessary deduction supported by logical premises, the argument is valid. “Validity” means that, if the premises are true, the result is necessarily true.
Logic seeks to discover the natural laws of thought and valid deduction for generating knowledge, aiming to internalise this process in the soul and life of a person, rather than treating it as a mere skill to be practised for a brief period. One of the first challenges in logic is that, even today, we lack a clear and definitive understanding of the “mind,” “perception,” “learning,” “thinking,” “modes of thinking,” “strengthening thinking,” and their various qualitative and quantitative stages; “memory,” “information,” “problem-solving,” and “science” are yet to be precisely defined. Cognitive psychology has not yet provided a reliable theory in this regard.
Science is an intellectual determination, and as such, it may be prone to error, leading to ambiguity or misunderstanding. The mind interacts with real events and their attributes, and accordingly, the soul generates direct knowledge. The philosophical tradition that regards knowledge as acquired or conceptual is entirely mistaken. Knowledge and reason are purely revelatory and present; although their objects may be sensory (material), imaginary (formal), or intellectual. Intellect and activity of the soul pertain to the soul itself, without needing external objects for their activity.
Knowledge, as a determination of the soul, is always present and does not require an external link to its object. The soul itself is the source of its perceptive and intellectual faculties. Knowledge is thus a manifestation of the soul’s creative power, and the soul directly encounters existence and reflects it within itself. The relationship between the soul and the external world is direct, without mediation by external objects. In its intellectual determination, the soul does not import anything from outside, nor does it export anything to the external world; instead, it creates knowledge through its own inherent powers.
It must be noted that the foundation of logic on self-evident propositions frees it from the need for any other science, especially from a different understanding of logic. While theoretical sciences require logic, self-evident sciences do not, and the science of logic itself is not in need of further logic because it begins with self-evident truths.
Self-evident propositions are those that are accepted without reflection and by simply understanding their correct representation. These are the primary truths that, upon considering the subject, predicate, and the relation between them, one is able to affirm their truth. These propositions establish the necessity and certainty of judgment inherently and intrinsically, without requiring a middle term or external cause, and without the need for proof. This certainty leads to certainty of knowledge.
In these propositions, predication is both primary and commonly artificial. A proposition formed by primary (conceptual) predication is an example of primary truths. The reason for calling this predication “primary” is that the truth or falsity of these propositions is necessary. A primary proposition, therefore, is broader than just primary predication.
In logic, when we consider the subject with respect to its concept, it is called primary predication, and when we consider the subject in terms of its instances, it is called common predication. In logical propositions, if the unity of subject and predicate is conceptual, then the predication is primary, but if it is based on actual instances, the predication is artificial. Predication, in the first sense, is a condition of the subject, whereas in the second sense, it is a condition of the proposition. Given this distinction, to achieve a contradiction, we must focus on what the speaker means by subject and predicate — whether they are referring to concepts, external instances, or mental representations. Moreover, the union of subject and predicate may be conceptual (primary predication) or related to the external instances (artificial predication). Even in a mental context without a connection, primary predication requires an internal link, as it is through this link that relations of quality and quantity are determined.
Self-evident propositions may not always be primary. If simply imagining the terms of the proposition does not suffice for certainty in its truth or falsity, then they may involve a sensory or intellectual intermediary. These intermediaries might include sensory experiences or innate concepts that lead to knowledge. Alternatively, they may be based on conjecture (mental leaps), trustworthy reports (testimonies), or empirical evidence (experiments). Therefore, self-evidence can be based on rational thought, sensory experience, intuition, or conjecture. Self-evident truths cannot be defined because they are simple and known intuitively, nor can they be deduced, as they are immune to fallacies.
The Genesis of Self-Evidence
The most fundamental self-evident proposition is the one that asserts that contradictions cannot coexist or negate one another, and the affirmation of all propositions requires accepting these two principles. The contradiction arises from a philosophy rooted in essence and an abstract principle of identity. Our logic, grounded in a new ontology as a philosophical paradigm, can, by extension, offer a paradigm shift in logic itself. The most self-evident idea for starting a discourse and educational approach is not being but the generality of being. The first scientific proposition should be the self-evidence of being in order to establish a rational and logical system.
Before accepting the self-evidence and the known nature of being, we acknowledge the “generality” of being. The generality of being is the first principle and proposition of reason. Being has a general concept and a rough intuition that is sufficient for affirming its generality. No concept exists without the concept of being, and being itself is not grounded in anything else. The existence of everything is through being. This generality also implies that being is inherent and absolute. Because we find being to be general, we accept its self-evidence. Being is self-evident not because it is self-evident, but because it is general.
Truth and being are equated, and being cannot be more general than itself. For something to be general, either being must not exist, which is a contradiction, or something between being and non-being must exist, which would contradict the negation of two opposites. The general nature of being is not confined to any specific thing; it can encompass everything. This knowledge is inherent in all phenomena, and everything recognizes its existence — without existence, there is no sensation or experience. Everything finds itself, not as a mental concept, nor as a thing, but as pure existence. Because of this, all beings recognize their existence and possess thoughts, actions, and efforts. The generality of being is indisputable for anyone, even those who deny it.
As we progressively recognize being as not only general but also absolute and infinite, we also develop an understanding of its infiniteness, though the understanding of the infinite makes it finite and the absolute understanding makes it limited. This understanding requires contemplation, a solitary connection, and a discovery of “pain” that arises from existence, only to rise and realize its presence. Without this connection, the distractions of material and psychic impurities hinder true understanding. The essence of “being” is found in the first connection with it, and this is enough for the immersion into the ocean of existence and the transcendence of its limitations.
The Correct Methodology in Science
The proper method in science is to utilize the senses and induction, but these should precede rationalism and deduction. One must first study nature through sensory observation and inductive reasoning, gradually moving towards rational analysis and then to the flowering of reason, which culminates in love, revelation, and intuition. This approach should be incorporated in the teaching of metaphysical and spiritual sciences, especially when teaching children. Mathematics and biology are currently the starting points of scientific education, but metaphysical meanings should also be approached through the methods of observation, interaction, and experiential closeness to the phenomena.
Scientific methods, both natural and human, rely on inductive reasoning and observational tools to understand the world around us. The correct approach to these sciences is through their natural principles, but their deeper truths lie in the realm of metaphysical experience, intuition, and esoteric understanding.
Certain Propositions
We previously discussed self-evident propositions. Intuitive propositions form another category of self-evident truths, derived from immediate knowledge. Just as first principles are always certain, intuitive propositions are similarly indubitable, in contrast to sensory or hypothetical propositions, which may occasionally be certain. In intuitive propositions, both the truth-bearer and the truth itself are accessible to the self, and the self can directly verify the correspondence and truth of these propositions through introspection. These intuitive propositions are clear and distinct examples of immediate knowledge and serve as reliable foundations for reasoning. In modern logic, personal propositions are considered equivalent to universal propositions, since their subject refers to the entirety of the individual instance. Moreover, the rule of “everything in everything” may be applied to them, whereas in classical logic, according to the principle that partial or individual matters are neither acquired nor acquired by another, these propositions can only be grasped through sensory perception, and as they are not universal, they do not have scientific or intersubjective validity.
Additionally, “mutawatir” (traditionally transmitted) propositions do not provide logical certainty. However, innate matters, although lacking clear explanations, do not, by their very nature, generate certainty like empirical matters. Instead, they require a preliminary logical inference within the confines of their experiential or innate conditions to establish their self-evidence. Propositions such as “the whole is greater than its part” are primary, self-evident, and neither derived from sensory perception nor subject to further reasoning. The claim that something is innate necessitates a logical understanding of innateness. By contemplating both sides of an innate proposition, an inference arises that results in certainty about the truth of the proposition. Innate knowledge is an internal guidance that directs a person toward certain actions or refrains them from others, always clear and unambiguous in its guidance, never misleading or deceptive. However, this guidance has a condition: one must abandon obstinacy, stubbornness, and prejudice, and approach with sincerity the tribunal of innate judgment, free from any preconceived opinions or imposed teachings. Such purity is rare, and there is much room for dispute about it. Consequently, only first principles and intuitive propositions, such as thoughts and fears, can serve as the starting points for analysis or scientific reference. Although sensory certainties hold value as initial awareness, they are not universal and do not require repetition. The educational system should be based on them. However, conjecture, although it is not always certain, can serve as a kind of sacred intuition, a direct source of insight into the world of existence, enabling one to present an argument to substantiate it. In conjecture, the middle term and conclusion form rapidly in the mind through contemplation of a single premise, aided by the purity of the soul.
Through the propositions and self-evident truths, and the deductions based upon them, we progress from the realm of proof to the realm of existence and meaning via syllogistic reasoning. A proof is a type of syllogism in which the premises are based on certain propositions and self-evident truths, oriented towards reality and the thing-in-itself. Its ultimate goal is to lead the person directly to the truth, rather than convincing or silencing others. Given the importance of proof, we shall explain it independently.
Formal and Material Logic
Material logic is subdivided into formal and content-based categories. Formal logic outlines the structure of reasoning and the pathway of argumentation, but the content of the propositions within this framework requires material logic to evaluate its worth. Certainty and assurance in the realm of content do not arise from Aristotelian logic, which is only formal. Formal logic, often referred to as theoretical or classical logic, aims to provide certainty and clarity in the outward form of reasoning, arranging propositions in a way that ensures their validity, but the veracity and soundness of the content of these propositions are derived from philosophical wisdom. A philosopher, in the specific sense, is one who is divinely inspired or has attained the intellectual virtue that allows them to access the world of meaning, reason about the propositions within it, and create a coherent system that bridges both existence and truth. The Shia system of Wilayah (divine guardianship), through its method of legal reasoning based on fundamental divine or rational principles, guarantees the correctness of its content. Thus, the material logic is rooted in Wilayah or divine grace, or at the very least, inspired genius, guided by a divinely knowledgeable teacher. However, one should not forget that the Qur’an is the source of all knowledge and the criterion for verifying the truth and falsity of propositions and scientific theories, as we shall discuss in the section on the Qur’an.
The logic of the Qur’an in the context of knowledge generation requires philosophical wisdom. Philosophical logic does not come from common reasoning methods; rather, it requires ijtihad (independent reasoning) of a specifically Shia nature, informed by divine authority, in order to make sense of the divine reality. This logic, in addition to understanding formal reasoning and empirical experience, necessitates content-based divine logic and religious experience. Only when such logic is present can one obtain certainty and certainty regarding the subject matter of inquiry and avoid the trap of conceptual or artificially constructed mental artifacts. Without divine knowledge, logical philosophers and scholars of reasoning lack genuine meaning, and their intellectual efforts remain disconnected from the true reality. Knowledge, in order to be real and certain, must be coupled with true wisdom, which is itself rooted in the divine wisdom or authority of the Wilayah.
Logic of Words
Although the conceptual aspect of thought takes precedence over the linguistic and verbal aspect, logic, due to the close connection between words and meanings, also addresses the general rules of language. These are not rules specific to any one language but are universal across languages. Therefore, the logic of words discusses the fundamental, shared rules that underlie the actualisation and realisation of terms in any given language.
Since logic is concerned with propositions, we focus here on the segment of language that deals with the declarative or reporting function of propositions and the verification or negation of them. The semantics and syntactic structures of sentences and expressions do not fall within this scope.
A word, when compared with its meaning and with other words, and regardless of whether it is singular or plural, is divided into simple and complex categories. This division pertains to the realm of conceptualisation and corresponds directly to the domain of judgments.
The study of words involves semantics and the theory of meaning, which we will discuss further in the section on Usul al-Fiqh. The importance of this discussion lies in the relationship between the thing-in-itself and its expression through language, and its theoretical status in logic. Our minds, in order to affect others or to be affected by them, need to use language in a deliberate and effective manner to engage in conceptual analysis, identifying the best path from a disordered state to an ideal state by attributing specific roles and actions to the relevant concepts. Without a proper connection between each concept and its reality, and a clear and precise definition of it, it is impossible to proceed with sound reasoning.
On the Absence of Substance in Philosophy and the Reduction of Generalities to Mental Concepts
By removing the concept of substance from philosophy, the discourse on the five general concepts is reduced to entirely mental concepts; in other words, the five generalities are reduced to the concepts of the five as they pertain to the discussion of “definition.”
Definition itself has various methods, including substantial definitions and those that define by exemplification. The aim of a substantial definition is to distinguish the defined thing from other things in a complete and thorough manner, stating its essential attributes and providing a clear and accurate image of the defined subject. A proper definition is given through its limits and distinctions, either by genus and species or by description. Definitions can be either complete or incomplete.
A definition using an incomplete description may involve illustrating by example, analogy, or the use of a counter-definition, or an example based on composite characteristics. In a composite characteristic definition, a number of broad, accidental qualities are listed, and together they define the essence of the subject. The benefit of this form of definition, much like that of a description, is to distinguish the subject from other objects, and it is commonly used in empirical sciences.
Another type of definition involving a specific characteristic is the divisional definition. In this type, all or some categories or parts of an object are listed. Division involves reducing genera to species and species to further divisions, considering their essential qualities, characteristics, and accidents. The division must adhere to correct logical rules, such as: the division must be useful to the one performing the division, the parts must differ in their instances, the division must maintain a consistent criterion, and ensure that it does not include irrelevant instances.
That which is divided is the “subject,” and each part in comparison to the other parts is known as the “division.” Divisions can be natural, breaking down a whole into its parts, or logical, where the whole is divided into detailed instances, and it can proceed either in a detailed manner or through a dialectical or logical process.
In general, conceptual definitions (or situational definitions), verbal definitions, nominal definitions, analytical definitions, historical process definitions, disjunctive definitions, operational definitions based on observable characteristics (which are either measurable or experimental), theoretical definitions, conventional definitions, and persuasive definitions based on emotion, motivation, and subjective aspects are types of definitions and descriptions. Empirical qualities that are presented through concepts and cannot be directly observed, like perceptions, values, and tendencies, are understood through operational definitions. This operational definition describes the necessary activities that empirically lead to the existence or manifestation of a defined phenomenon. The meaning of every scientific concept must be defined through the operations that test the most appropriate and specific criteria for its application.
A conceptual definition based on abstract words and hypothetical criteria helps identify the essence of a phenomenon. The logical process of hypothesis formation is addressed in classical logic, but the definition itself remains rooted in substantial concepts. A definition involves both formal and material laws. In a substantial definition, besides using essential concepts, material concepts must be clear, eloquent, unambiguous, and stable, encompassing all the defined instances while excluding unrelated ones. That is, the relationship between the defining concept and the defined concept must be equivalent in terms of their instances. A substantial definition should state the essential properties of the kind. It must also be positive, as negative or non-existent definitions are considered improper. The essence of something can only be understood through analysis, which dissects complex matters into simpler parts.
The concepts involved in defining, which play a role in communication, empirical sensitivity, generalization, and theory building, must be clear, precise, and universally accepted, free from ambiguity. Ambiguity causes disputes, as debates often revolve around clarifying points of ambiguity. Proper and logical definitions are effective in revealing and resolving ambiguity.
A definition with a concept that is clearer than the defined entity, or with concepts that are imprecise and open to multiple interpretations, introduces ambiguity. Terms like “common words,” metaphors, and vague expressions without clear indicators contribute to ambiguity and create confusion in thought.
In logical definitions, the defining term must align conceptually with the defined term, maintaining consistency and not contradiction. A lexical or linguistic definition is not considered a logical definition. Definitions should not be circular, meaning the defining term must not rely on itself. Circular reasoning should not occur either directly or indirectly in a definition.
In definition, attention to the stability criterion is crucial. This principle states that definitions should be framed in a way that stabilizes the conceptual space, ensuring that all individuals share the same understanding of a concept. The definition must be specific enough to allow for straightforward examination, with clearly defined terms that cannot be interpreted in multiple ways.
A definition must also consider the effects, states, attributes, manifestations, and relational concepts of the defined term, as well as the causal relationships between concepts derived from their inherent causal connections. These causal relationships include material (what changes), formal (how it should change), efficient (the agent of change), and final (the goal of the change) causes.
From a formal perspective, the defined concepts should be arranged from the general to the specific, presented in a compound and restrictive manner, where each subsequent restriction builds on the previous one. To ensure this, the five general concepts system has been established, which serves as a key to understanding the logical structure for healthy concepts and proper definitions.
In summary, every general concept in the context of defining an unknown idea, when examined in relation to its instances, is either an essential quality of the instances or extraneous to them. The former is a substance, while the latter is an accident. An accident can be predicated of the subject or not, and if it pertains only to a single essence, it is called a specific accident or characteristic. The concept of “characteristic” refers to qualities that, although not conveying what something is, are predicated reciprocally of the subject.
On Existence and Ontology
The philosophy of existence does not accept the primacy of essence and denies attributing qualities and judgments to essence, instead assigning these to the system of existence and manifestation. Therefore, a true and correct definition cannot pertain to essence or be for essence but must be for existence and through existence.
While we do not remove conceptual definitions from the educational system, we must recognize that, in light of the evolving process of knowledge, definitions should not be confined to the five general concepts. Instead, a true definition pertains to actual instances, existence, and manifestation, not merely conceptual presentation. Consequently, along with conceptual definitions in the educational system, existential and manifestational definitions should also be adopted at a higher level to complement and complete the puzzle of epistemology.
In ancient logic, philosophical discussions about knowledge were based on systems that either accepted the primacy of essence or treated it as secondary. In both cases, they misdirected the inquiry, as existence, not essence, is the true reality. Existence has manifestation and determination, continuously unfolding and expanding in its appearance, and this process of unfolding involves an inherent rise and decline. Only by shedding the self and understanding the phenomena in their flow and movement can true knowledge emerge. The soul, in this process, realizes all these manifestations within itself, becoming attuned to every aspect of existence. Through self-realization and by adhering to the law of attraction, it can access knowledge and wisdom.
Philosophical Concepts
The classification of concepts into essential, philosophical, and logical reveals that many terms once considered categories in the Aristotelian system, such as existence, are now seen as philosophical concepts. This shift disrupts and weakens the Aristotelian system of definitions, as the ten categories do not accommodate concepts of existence and manifestation, which are second-order philosophical abstractions. Philosophical concepts arise from the comparison of existence, its levels, and phenomena, and are derived actively through dualistic relationships.
Given the above, the distinction between logical concepts and philosophical concepts is as follows: in philosophical concepts, judgment and comparison are made based on objective phenomena, while in logical concepts, the focus is on other mental concepts independently, detached from the epistemological or indicative aspect of their reference. In logical concepts, the qualities and characteristics of the concepts themselves are emphasised, not the attributes of the individuals. Therefore, there is no inherent requirement for them to be conjugated, unlike philosophical concepts. Just as logical concepts, being distinct from substantial concepts, neither define another concept nor themselves are defined, they are neither linked to nor defined by the content of other concepts.
Logical concepts are divided into two groups: primary (or first-order) concepts and others. Non-primary concepts are abstracted from primary concepts, such as essential and accidental types, genus, opposition of levels, and contradictory opposition, all of which stem from primary concepts like universal and particular.
Up until this point, we have clarified the distinction between logical concepts and substantial or philosophical concepts. The concept of the universal, when it applies solely to mental concepts and its application is mental (e.g. the concept of universality and particularity, where the former is a characteristic of the concept of ‘man’ and the latter is a feature of a mental representation like ‘Zayd’), is a logical concept or second-order concept. However, when it applies to external objects, it is either automatically and instantly abstracted from specific instances by the mind, thus being a substantial or first-order concept, or it requires mental activity and comparison of objects with one another, and cannot be achieved without this evaluation, thus becoming a philosophical or second-order philosophical concept. Therefore, first-order concepts and substantial concepts are both external in their application and attribution, whereas second-order philosophical concepts are mentally applied but externally attributed, and second-order logical concepts are both mentally applied and attributed.
Fallacies in Definition
The fallacies of “essence and aspect,” “being instead of whatness,” and “cause = this from that, hence it is the same” are among the most common fallacies in the domain of substantial definitions, concerning the material of definition, and will be explained in the section on “Fallacies.” Additionally, the dialectical positions which existed before Avicenna as part of debate principles are often considered “fallacies of definition.”
Logic of Propositions
The logic of propositions forms the theoretical foundation of modern and mathematical logic, and is also the basis for humanistic and scientific logic. The theory of syllogism is built upon it. Without this part of logic, the conversion of syllogistic forms to one another would not be possible.
This logic is based on the necessity of empirical knowledge and induction, focusing on the external laws of phenomena, as well as on the process of reasoning and assuming the truth of premises in inference. It has a conditional form, looking at the outward appearance of phenomena for their understanding, rather than at their essence or nature, as the propositions of traditional logic are based on the theory of categories (predicates) that are concerned with those appearances.
In traditional logic, the unit of thought is the “concept,” not the proposition. In traditional logic, the proposition is a complete compound that, intrinsically and without analysis, can accept truth or falsity, and has a descriptive identity; that is, it makes a claim about existence and its phenomena, and can be broken down into concepts of subject, predicate, the relation between them, and the judgment. A proposition represents the linguistic expression of a mental affirmation or judgment. It is important to note that while every complete declarative compound is a sentence, not every sentence is necessarily a complete declarative compound—it might be an imperative or interrogative sentence. Imperative sentences cannot be judged as true or false and carry an emotive, motivational tone, rather than being purely factual, neutral, or scientific language aiming to express truth.
Additionally, a sentence is part of a specific language, but a proposition does not belong to any specific language and is common across all languages. Even if expressed in multiple languages, it is considered the same proposition, not multiple propositions depending on the language. Thus, the two sentences “Hassan sold the book to Hussein” and “Hussein bought the book from Hassan” are two different sentences from a linguistic perspective, but logically, since they convey the same meaning, they are the same proposition.
A proposition has both a form (syntax) and a meaning or content (semantics), and it carries the potential for various truth values. The form of a proposition can be categorical or conditional.
The logic of propositions in modern logic relates to exceptional and conjunctive syllogisms of traditional logic. In traditional logic, subject, predicate, relation (logical link), and judgment form the foundation of every proposition, but in modern logic, subject and predicate are disregarded from the outset, focusing instead on the logical relation and beginning with logical connectives. Logical relations within propositions are then decomposed into smaller units, and examining these units is called the logic of propositions.
In modern logic, the inferential structure is divided into two types: inferences that require the smallest components in language, namely propositions, and inferences that require smaller parts of a proposition to form a compound proposition. Thus, logic is divided into two sections: the logic of propositions and the logic of predicates. The logic of propositions, starting with simple propositions, precedes the logic of predicates, which deals with compound propositions.
We have stated that a proposition is a sentence that conveys meaningful information about reality, and its truth value (truth or falsity) can be determined. Based on this definition, the liar paradox “All my statements are false” is not a true or false proposition. It is a type of imperative or expressive sentence that functions similarly to an agreement or oath, where the speaker intends to make a declaration, not describe a fact. Thus, it does not express truth or falsity.
It should be noted that distinguishing between declarative or imperative sentences, which both carry meanings, depends on the speaker’s intent and contextual clues, and their truth or falsity depends on this. Furthermore, any sentence rooted in emotions and psychological states is not a proposition. A logical proposition is a complete descriptive statement about a phenomenon, not an emotionally charged or motivational statement.
The scope of a proposition is restricted to nature and the mundane, and phenomena in transcendent realms cannot be subject to truth evaluation unless they are perceived as true.
In mathematical logic, the foundation of the logic of propositions and the operation of implications rests on three key components: the examination of relationships between propositions and determining their truth or falsity using principles, evaluating the validity of propositions that are “proposition-like” but do not apply to the external world and remain unknown, and determining the truth of some propositions by applying certain parameters.
The principles refer to laws and propositions that are universally true and agreed upon, and are used to assess other propositions or statements. Using consensus on principles, other propositions and statements are proved or calculated.
A proposition can be simple (atomic) or complex (molecular), and either categorical (assertion without conditions) or conditional (hypothetical). A proposition that cannot be broken down into other propositions is called a simple proposition. In symbolic logic, a simple proposition is denoted as “P.”
In modern logic, the focus is not on individual components of propositions and their words, but on the proposition as a whole. Each proposition has a truth value determined by logical principles. The truth value of complex propositions is derived from the truth values of the component simple propositions, which are combined using specific operations.
The relation in understanding complex propositions is significant, and through logical connectives (such as conjunction), complex propositions are defined. The logic of propositions essentially deals with the internal structure of compound sentences, while simple sentences are not the focus.
Conclusion
The most important logical connectives for constructing complex propositions in modern logic are: negation, conjunction, disjunction, conditional, and biconditional. These connectives are widely used in modern logic.
The new logic of the verbal action in discourse places the verb as the foundation of speech, which carries the content burden of the sentence (such as news, descriptions, commands, prohibitions, etc.). It transforms the verb, pronunciation, and articulation of words into a proposition that distinguishes the news proposition from others. The verbal action in discourse encompasses both the content of the discourse and the propositional content that includes narration and predication.
In logic, propositions that are always true, based on their structural integrity, are of particular importance. For instance, “Seven is a prime number” or “It is not true that seven is a prime number.” The proposition above has a formal linguistic structure: P ~ P v. Its truth arises from the formal linguistic structure, and it holds true in the “if and only if” form. The truth or falsity of simple propositions does not affect its truth. A proposition that is always true is called a “tautology,” and a proposition that is always false is called a “contradiction.” It should be noted that a contradiction describes the proposition, and it is loosely assigned to the components. A contradiction refers to the conjunction of a proposition and its negation.
Symbolic logic is a technique that provides two groups of interchangeable structures: one with rules of inference and denotation (semantics), and the other with two or more propositions whose truth is assumed and leads to a necessary conclusion. The first structure is called a “truth-functional structure,” and the second is called an “inference structure.” Naturally, whenever logic is able to transform syntax and denotation, it has established a new logic. This existential and scientific logic, due to this semantic transformation, can be called humanistic and proximate logic, and this formative logic serves as the starting point for drafting new logic.
Mathematical logic examines the relationships between propositions and arguments that are valid due to the arrangement of these relationships. For this reason, logic is also referred to as the “calculus of propositions” or “propositional logic.” Aristotelian logic focuses on the logic of predicables, as it divides propositions into subject and predicate.
Propositional logic derives its rules from concepts such as “variable,” “constant,” “truth tables,” “propositional structure,” “replacement example,” and valid forms of inference, which are themselves divided into one-way (implicational) and two-way (equivalence) forms. These also build arguments and their “completeness” through indirect proof and conditional reasoning. The “tree method” in propositional logic also teaches an automatic method to determine the validity of propositions.
It should be noted, however, that we should not focus on propositions as being restrictive. Given the importance of material logic, sentences based on incorrect or unclear concepts only carry meaning in a conceptual form but fail to form a logical proposition containing news and meaning. The necessary condition for a logical proposition is its “meaningfulness” and the conveying of news. A set of concepts, none of which have meaning, cannot form a proposition, nor does it go beyond mere speculation, never reaching affirmation or judgment. In the light of material logic, logic is understood as knowledge, not just technique, and is scientific rather than merely practical. Concepts, when tied to meaning and structured correctly, are transformed into propositions. Therefore, a proposition must have both concept and meaning. By possessing both concept and meaning, the referent becomes understandable, and the path to understanding reality or truth becomes clear.
Today’s educational system in the humanities is limited to concepts and transforms one concept into another, but detached from meaning and referential reality. Knowledge involves being able to transform from referents and meaning to concept, without severing the link between meaning, concept, and referent. In our definition section, we discussed the idea of “defining referent by referent” and existential teaching. This educational approach requires extensive, well-equipped laboratories supported by advanced industries, network studies, and collective research. Logic must support this method to produce foundational propositions, so science is not reduced to an abstract theory or subjected to the decay of time and mistaken paradigms.
Logic deals with concepts tied to meaning and reference, but concepts detached from meaning are devoid of logic. The combination of propositions that lack meaningful coherence and juxtapose unrelated subjects does not form valid inference. Science that engages with concepts that have meaning and reference produces power. Abstract and purely theoretical concepts that lack meaning and reference, or any external source of abstraction, do not have the potential to be profound or impactful. Thus, the effort to confine logic solely to its formal aspect, symbolicizing it further and ignoring natural material language, constitutes a logical fallacy that renders inference invalid.
While it is true that logic must be considered as inference and its language must necessarily be symbolic, a mere focus on form, detached from content, meaning, and the deeper reality, limits foundational knowledge such as logic to a formal logic and misrepresents its essence. The confinement of contemporary logic to formal logic does not stem from the essence of logic itself but from the dominance of formal abstractions over content and meaning. If material logic had not stagnated, in addition to the growth and development of material logic and the pursuit of discovering the rules governing content and logic of various knowledge fields, analytical logic for each science would also have been developed, providing the necessary framework for assessing and valuing them.
Just like the new logic, we base our understanding of logic on the “proposition.” A logical proposition must be informative and meaningful, containing a claim in a descriptive form that leads to new affirmation within a valid system of inference. In this case, the proposition is scientific and logical, carrying the potential for generating knowledge. The purpose of epistemic recognition is to understand the truth or falsity of a proposition. This recognition is distinct from certainty, belief, conviction, acknowledgment, reporting, or assertion, all of which are psychological states akin to perception and personal understanding.
A categorical proposition consists of four components: quantity (such as “all,” “none,” “some”), quality (affirmative or negative relation), subject, and predicate.
Thus, each categorical proposition is surrounded by quantities and the qualities derived from them. Qualities are always dependent on quantities and arise from the number and arrangement of the components of things. Disciplines focused on quantities are more precise than qualitative sciences. Qualitative reasoning expresses the states and boundaries of inference but is often superficial and flawed, while quantitative reasoning is definitive and explicit. Qualitative and graded reasoning, which is handled by many-valued logic (fuzzy logic), is essential for analyzing and proving realities (not truths) and is more applicable in qualitative industries.
Quantitative reasoning is necessary for analyzing findings and scientifically reaching the truth. Without it, one falls into the realm of realities and is detached from truths.
It must be emphasized that the quantities and qualities discussed here are to be understood in terms of empirical sciences, not merely as quantities and qualities within Aristotle’s categories, which belong to the system of essence. We previously stated that we view the system of existence and manifestation based on unity, individuality, and coexistence, where connection, combination, and separation are not governing principles, leaving no space for quantities to be connected or separated within this context.
A proposition, whether categorical or conditional, can be personal (specific, existential, and individual), vague, or restricted, depending on its subject. A categorical proposition’s subject could either be an individual, existential manifestation or a general, essential concept referring to instances. In the latter case, the quantity is either implied or explicitly stated.
If the subject refers to a general concept not related to instances or individuals, it is “natural,” and the term “concept” may be applied. This kind of proposition behaves as a personal proposition, as no applicable law is provided for its instances. The subject mentioned in personal and natural propositions is real, not nominal, while in restricted propositions, the subject is nominal and relates to its essence, with the predicate being a concept.
The foundation of the new logic is personal propositions, which are constructed from two components: the nominative and the predicate, aligning with humanistic logic and the truth and validity of personal propositions. However, in ancient essential logic, these propositions were not considered scientific. In ancient logic, the subject of a proposition was always an essential concept, whereas in the new logic, the subject should point to a particular, individual referent. The new logic discards essence and the knowledge of the essence, viewing reality only as empirically experienceable, personal matters. Therefore, the foundation of knowledge and thought is simple propositions that assert judgments about empirical matters.
In the new logic, all propositions can be built on personal propositions. If the subject is a thing and asserts that something exists, it cannot be replaced, and only the name of the thing can substitute for the variable bound by the subject. It is required that at least one object within the scope is true, but if it is replaceable and used as an implicit meaning or substitute, the quantity merges with quality and may not necessarily correspond to the existential reality of the referent.
A conditional proposition or “if-then” is considered connected or detached based on the logical use of conjunction (“and”) or disjunction (“or”). The conditional proposition’s content expresses the relation between the antecedent and consequent. This compound proposition expresses the relationship between the antecedent and consequent, and its categorical clauses with conditional words form part of the conditional proposition and do not have independent consideration. Therefore, quantity, quality, truth, and falsity in such propositions depend on the relation and not on the truth or falsity of the antecedent or consequent.
In conditional propositions, the affirmative relation takes the form of “such that” and does not necessarily require explicit mention, while the negative takes the form of “it is not such that,” which must be stated explicitly.
In personal conditionals, the connection or disconnection is bound to a specific time or condition. In vague conditionals, time is not specified. In restricted conditionals, the connection or disconnection is attributed to all times (always) or some times (sometimes).
The contrapositive in agreement refers to the situation where both the subject and the predicate of a proposition are negated. In this case, the words “non” and the negation operator appear in the subject and predicate without any rearrangement. The truth of both propositions must also be preserved. To maintain the truth of a universal proposition in a universal proposition, a universal negative is converted into a particular negative, and a particular negative into a particular negative. However, a particular affirmative does not have a contrapositive in agreement.
In the contrapositive in disagreement, in addition to swapping the subject and predicate, only the predicate is negated. The negation of the original predicate becomes the subject in the second proposition, and the truth of both propositions is preserved. To maintain the truth of both propositions, a universal affirmative is converted into a universal negative, a universal negative into a particular affirmative, and a particular negative into a particular negative. A particular affirmative does not have a contrapositive in disagreement either.
In the negation of agreement, the second proposition results from a modification of the predicate. Therefore, the modification of the predicate in agreement is converted into the negation of the predicate in disagreement. The negation of the predicate in agreement is also converted into the affirmation of the predicate in disagreement.
When negation is applied in a partial manner to the subject, predicate, or both, the proposition becomes modified. In contrast, a proposition that is affirmed is considered a “positive” statement, in which both the subject and predicate are affirmatively stated. Since the types of propositions (affirmed or negated) can be either universal or particular, they lead to eight different forms of reasoning.
As mentioned earlier, in direct reasoning, inference is drawn from a proposition. Direct reasoning can be divided into three types: (Examples follow this template)
(a, b are P).
- Contrapositive and Inverse:
- Non-b, non-a.
- Some b is a.
(b) Negation:
- Some a is not b, which is incorrect.
(c) Negation of the subject or predicate, or both:
- Non-a, b.
- a, non-b.
- non-a, non-b.
It is important to distinguish between contradiction and the negation of either the subject, predicate, or both.
In the rule of “double negation”, both the subject and the predicate are negated, such that the truth and quality of the proposition remain intact. In this case, a universal statement becomes particular, but a particular proposition does not have a double negation.
Example proposition: “Every a is b. No a is b.”
Some non-a is non-b.
Some non-a is not non-b.
In the negation of the subject, the subject and the quality of the proposition are negated while the truth and quality remain intact. In this case, a universal proposition becomes particular, and a particular proposition does not negate the subject.
Some non-a is b.
Some non-a is not b.
In the negation of the predicate, the predicate and the quality of the proposition are negated while the truth and quantity remain intact. This rule applies to all categorical propositions, and considering the hypothetical nature of the subject, both the negation of the predicate and the negation of the subject maintain the truth.
Every a is non-b.
No a is non-b.
Some a is non-b.
Some a is not non-b.
The categorical proposition in the form of a subject-predicate statement is examined in terms of the actual existence of the subject, whether mental, external, or real. In the latter case, the subject is considered to be a mixture of both mental and external. According to the auxiliary rule, as long as the subject in a categorical proposition is not established in a composite and not a simple form, the predicate will not be established for it. This rule keeps logic bound by the existential commitment within the proposition.
It should be noted that the distinction between a categorical proposition and a real or external proposition should not be confused due to the shared terminology. A real proposition can have hypothetical individuals and is often translated into a conditional form, indicating only the necessity between the antecedent and consequent, but does not prove that the antecedent holds true. However, this does not mean that it lacks a reality corresponding to the matter itself.
In modern logic, a universal proposition can be analysed as existential (or apparent existence), and all individuals within the subject are considered hypothetical, as is the case with scientific universal propositions. The individuals in a universal statement are mentally assumed to exist. It is essential to understand that logic represents language based on reason and scientific rigor, not the language of common colloquial understanding. Thus, universal propositions are considered non-existent unless converted to conditional form.
Although it is possible to analyze universal propositions in terms of their existential appearance, the analysis of categorical propositions as conditional holds greater prominence. Therefore, the universal proposition can be converted into a particular negative and a universal affirmative into a particular negative. Modern logic maintains that the falsehood of the more specific does not necessarily imply the falsehood of the more general. Particulars are not the inverse of universals, but rather they are distinct. Universal propositions are not existent in themselves and must be converted into conditional forms.
Valid syllogisms
Reasoning in the form of syllogism, or reasoning from the general to the particular, has a decisive and necessary outcome. Inductive reasoning, on the other hand, results in a probable (or uncertain) conclusion, and analogy (or reasoning from one particular to another) involves analogy.
In classical logic, reasoning is based on concepts. Until the concepts and ideas are properly arranged, the propositions from which reasoning is based do not take form.
In modern logic, reasoning is based on inference. Inference is the process by which a new proposition is derived or affirmed based on one or more given propositions. Inference can either be valid or invalid, and in the latter case, the reasoning must be analysed. The collection of propositions that are analysed and the relations between them, when accepted as true, support the conclusion in a structured, logical manner, ensuring the validity of the inference. Therefore, reasoning never occurs from a single proposition but involves several premises, one of which is the conclusion and others serve as premises supporting the conclusion. Reasoning is based on premises that are accepted as true, whether empirical or hypothetical, and result in a valid outcome through a sound inferential structure. Reasoning is at the heart of logic.
It is not always the case that the conclusion follows the premises in a simple manner.
To evaluate a syllogism, the premises and conclusion must be identified and the main argument determined. Some terms refer to the premises, while others refer to the conclusion, indicating it clearly. Sometimes, the premises are not explicitly stated but are assumed to be true.
Syllogism is the most important form of reasoning and refers to the process of drawing conclusions from multiple premises, where the subject of the first premise and the predicate of the second premise are related to derive a conclusion. Syllogism, in classical logic, consists of two or more premises from which a necessary conclusion follows. It is distinguished from direct reasoning or inductive reasoning, which involves several premises but does not follow the necessary form of syllogism.
Conjunctive Syllogism
We previously stated that no logical syllogism exists outside of the two categories based on the dissolution of premises into two clauses, or otherwise. In a conjunctive syllogism, it is asserted that the result or its negation exists in a combined form, mirroring its presentation in the conclusion, and appears in the premises as a practical manifestation. A conjunctive syllogism can be formed from multiple categorical propositions, forming a categorical conjunctive syllogism, or it can involve at least one conditional proposition, forming a conditional conjunctive syllogism. Categorical propositions are those that, when analyzed, are divided into two subjects, a relation, and a predicate, whereas conditional propositions, when analyzed, are divided into two or more propositions, a relation, and a combinatory structure. This division represents two distinct systems of syllogistic inference.
Conditional propositions express a result in terms of the interdependence of individuals and qualitative groups. Since logic is the science of results, conditional propositions serve as the foundation of reasoning.
A categorical conjunctive syllogism is based on the golden middle term, which serves as the common and unifying term in the affirmative state and is eliminated in the negative state. Depending on the position of the middle term relative to both premises, or the manner in which the middle term associates with both premises, the syllogism takes on four “forms,” which, when considered with the four possible combinations of quantity and quality, can result in 256 combinations. However, only 24 of these combinations are valid, which reflects the logical difficulty involved.
For a syllogism to be valid, the following four rules must be observed. These rules are based on the theory of expansion and the expanded limit. The expanded limit refers to a term in a proposition that includes all individuals in the domain, unlike a non-expanded limit, which does not encompass all individuals. Thus, any term following a general affirmative marker such as “everyone,” “all,” “everywhere,” “always,” “both,” etc., is expanded. However, if two expansion markers precede any term, the term becomes non-expanded (completely ambiguous). Terms that appear in responses to “how often?” or pertain to actions like “knowing,” “understanding,” or “recognizing” are also non-expanded.
The general conditions for the validity of a syllogism are as follows:
- The middle term must be expanded in at least one of the premises. (Rule against the non-expanded middle term = The middle term must be expanded at least once.)
- If a term is expanded in the conclusion, it must also be expanded in its corresponding premise. (Rule against sterile methods.)
- Both premises of the syllogism must not be negative.
- If only one of the premises is negative, the conclusion is also negative.
Thus, for a syllogism to be valid, at least one of the premises, or both, must be universal. If both premises of a conjunctive syllogism are particular, the conclusion will not be constant or always true. Furthermore, it is necessary that one or both premises are affirmative, and not both premises being negative, because the conclusion may be invalid if both premises are negative.
To prove any proposition, a demonstration must be provided. The demonstration can either be direct, based on the four valid forms of the first syllogism with the application of inverse rules, which provide the foundation for this direct movement from the premises to the conclusion, or indirect, involving a contradiction. In addition to that, two rules of direct demonstration from the rules of contrariety are also applied to prove the conclusion by refuting the negation of the conclusion, as the erroneous result follows from a false assumption.
For the first form of a syllogism to be effective, in addition to the general conditions, it is necessary for the minor premise to be affirmative and the major premise to be universal. If the minor premise is negative in the first form, the judgment does not necessarily transfer from the major term to the minor term through the middle term, and it is uncertain whether the judgment is applicable to the minor term. If the major premise is not universal, meaning the judgment does not apply universally, the judgment from the major term to certain individuals of the middle term is true, but it is uncertain whether these individuals meet the minor term, and the syllogism cannot yield a conclusion. This can easily be shown using the diagram of three circles (the minor term, middle term, and major term).
The conclusion of the first form is self-evident and does not require proof. However, for other forms, the result is not self-evident and must be reduced to the first form to be valid. In a categorical conjunctive syllogism, inference is based on “inclusion” and “subsumption,” transferring from one thing to another, provided there is an inclusion relationship between them or with a third thing.
Other forms of categorical conjunctive syllogism are proven by contradiction and by refuting the negation of the result, and they are necessarily proven as follows:
Negation of the conclusion + one valid assumed premise = obtaining a false result + the invalidity of the assumed negation = the validity of the assumption.
By establishing the invalidity of the conclusion and maintaining the conditions of the syllogism (first form) and the validity of the assumed premise, the negation must be deemed false, and with the falsity of the negation, the conclusion must be correct.
The formal structure of the argument from contradiction is as follows: if from the assumption (A is B = P), two contradictory conclusions (Q and ~Q) follow, we must conclude that P is false, and therefore ~P is true:
P Z Q . P Z ~ Q / ~ P
If in the argument from contradiction, the conclusion does not contradict the assumed premises, a new valid premise must be used, or the result should be reversed.
As we stated earlier, in modern logic, the transformation of a propositional expression into a proposition is done using sours. A sour can be universal, existential, or null. A universal sour takes all values from the domain, an existential sour takes some values from the domain, and a null sour does not use any values from the domain. A proposition with a null sour is only true when its solution set is empty, i.e., no elements in the domain of the propositional expression are part of the solution set. A null sour proposition can be expressed as a universal sour and the negation of the propositional expression.
Propositions with sours also have negations. For the negation, a universal sour must be converted into an existential sour, and an existential sour must be rewritten as a null sour proposition. The negation of a null sour proposition can be expressed as an existential sour.
Justifications
The material in categorical propositions can be the necessity, possibility, and impossibility of something in a detached, real form, and these three concepts are the justifications derived from them. Real propositions with material content are not assigned truth values, as they represent reality itself, rather than a correspondence with reality. However, the direction of a proposition, if it aligns with the material, is true, and if it does not align, it is false.
The concepts of necessity, possibility, and impossibility direct categorical propositions. These concepts are particularly significant in natural language and ordinary discourse, especially when dealing with those who deliberately engage in fallacious reasoning. Neglecting to consider these concepts can lead one into the trap of fallacies. An example of this is the common misinterpretation of a present proposition as a permanent one. In modal logic, it is essential to address the semantic implications of justifications, mixed syllogisms (syllogisms composed of justifications), and the negation and inverse of justifications.
We have said that propositions are delimited in quality and quantity. In classical logic, the direction indicates the quality of the relation and the material of the proposition. Whenever a relationship is established between a subject and a predicate, forming a categorical proposition, this relationship has a real, inherent quality known as “material,” and the term referring to this quality is called the “direction.” Therefore, the directions of propositions arise from the material or actual quality of the judgment, either in the mind or in words. This connects the logical discussion of justifications to philosophical ontology. However, logical directions should not be entirely equated with the three philosophical materials, as logic takes a general and comprehensive approach to all subjects, predicates, and their relationships in all worlds. Since the truth value of a proposition depends on the alignment of the judgment with the relation of the proposition, and direction is only concerned with the relation, the direction of the judgment is referred to as the direction of truth. Sometimes, justifications of truth (including possibility, necessity, and impossibility) are distinguished from justifications of time (such as “always” or “forever”). The temporal interpretation of justifications relates to ordinary language and helps prevent errors stemming from superficial thinking and the avoidance of common fallacies.
Other Justifications
There are numerous categories of justifications, and we will only mention the most important ones. Necessity in a proposition, when affirmative, is called “obligation” and when negative, it is called “impossibility.” The concept of possibility in the three materials refers to philosophical possibility, whereas in the primary directions, it refers to general logical possibility. The philosophical concept of possibility does not have an external instance or concrete reference, but it is a description of external entities.
In philosophy, we assert that existence and the essence of being are neither possible nor impossible; rather, possibility and impossibility are qualities of an unknowledgeable mind regarding the specifics. Therefore, in scientific propositions, only the direction of necessity is relevant, and mentioning other directions serves only an educational or exploratory purpose to familiarize one with non-scientific language fallacies and errors.
A proposition mentioning apossible” occurrence is sometimes used to warn against improperly equating itDirection of the Predicate (Predicative Direction) and Its Philosophical Implications
The direction of the predicate (in a categorical proposition) is directly connected to its philosophical significance. As observed in categorical syllogisms, if the minor premise is absolute and free from direction, and the major premise is necessary, the conclusion of the syllogism is necessarily true. The conclusion does not follow from the two premises in a usual manner, because the direction of necessity resides in the major premise, which corresponds to the direction of the predicate.
Fallacies
Any definition or argument that is not logically sound is considered a sophism. However, not every error in reasoning is termed a fallacy. Fallacies are identified as those systematic errors that can be recognised and categorised according to specific patterns. A fallacy is a quasi-logical syllogism used to refute or negate a “correct” proposition. The form and material of a fallacy bear a close resemblance to a valid syllogism, and it is this similarity that leads to erroneous conclusions. Like a valid argument, a fallacy serves as a material logical appeal, which is why it appears independently. More importantly, a fallacy represents a flaw in reasoning, and it is the task of logic to prevent and identify these errors.
The understanding of different fallacies is crucial for a logician because a logical system must be designed to detect and confront fallacies that target the result of reasoning. The system must be structured in such a way that it prevents complex or advanced fallacies from undermining the validity of conclusions. Therefore, when a new fallacy arises, it necessitates the design of a logical framework with new tools to counter it.
In the study of fallacies, the focus is on identifying errors in the conclusion and justifying them. Attention is given to the premises in this regard. These fallacies can be related either to the stage of definition or to the stage of reasoning. Thus, fallacies do not claim to ascertain the truth of a conclusion, nor do they make it their subject; they only deal with errors and missteps in reaching conclusions.
Fallacies can be divided into two broad categories: fallacies of definition and fallacies of reasoning. The missteps in defining a term are highlighted in the discussion of definitions.
Fallacies, whether related to definitions or reasoning, can be further divided into essential and accidental fallacies, as well as formal and informal fallacies. Formal fallacies are typically discussed in relation to valid patterns of deduction and often appear similar to them, whereas informal fallacies stem from a lack of attention to the subject matter or ambiguities in the language used to form the argument. Informal fallacies either consist of irrelevant premises—where the premises do not logically support the conclusion—or ambiguities (called fallacies of clarity) in which the meaning of terms changes subtly within the argument, making it fallacious. Here, we classify fallacies as essential and accidental, which encompass all other divisions.
In cases where multiple fallacies are identified, the distinguishing criterion is their clarity, with the more obvious fallacy being highlighted first.
Essential Fallacies
Essential fallacies typically arise either from the lexical aspect or from the semantic aspect. A “semantic fallacy” refers to any non-lexical error that occurs within reasoning and argumentation. These fallacies can be classified under the following types: verbal errors such as ambiguity (the use of a word with multiple meanings), and the fallacy of omission or addition in the qualification of terms, or the fallacy of corrupt form or substance.
Ambiguity refers to a term that can denote more than one meaning, such as a polysemy or a metaphorical or transferred meaning. The term word refers to any single word that signifies a meaning, whether it is a noun, verb, or adjective.
Examples of lexical ambiguity can be seen in the terms used in classical logic, mathematical logic, pragmatism, and dialectical logic, which each interpret terms differently. For instance, the term “proposition” has different meanings in traditional logic and mathematical logic.
In the case of composition fallacy, a statement made about parts is mistakenly applied to the whole. Similarly, in the division fallacy, it is falsely assumed that what is true of the whole is necessarily true of the parts. This kind of error results from improper division of the subject. In taking an accidental for a necessary property, or conceptual misinterpretation, we encounter a fallacy where the essential attributes of a concept are replaced by its accidental features, leading to incorrect conclusions.
Other fallacies can involve missing qualifications, such as when a general statement is wrongly applied to a specific instance, leading to flawed reasoning. For example, saying “a runner is a writer” is misleading because the subject of the statement (the “runner”) is not an essential attribute of the human being as a whole, but rather a temporary state.
Fallacies of relevance (informal fallacies) occur when the premises, rather than supporting the conclusion, divert attention from it by introducing irrelevant factors or by using language that introduces ambiguity.
Accidental Fallacies
Accidental fallacies do not directly impact the form or structure of the argument but arise from external factors that affect the reasoning. These might include the use of power, threats, or emotional appeals to persuade an audience, rather than presenting a valid argument.
Common accidental fallacies include:
- Appeal to power: Using force or threats to convince others to accept a conclusion.
- Appeal to authority: Citing an authority figure or expert in support of an argument without critically engaging with the content.
- Appeal to emotion: Manipulating emotional responses to justify a claim, rather than offering logical support.
- Ad hominem attacks: Attacking the character of the individual making the argument rather than addressing the argument itself.
Other techniques that involve misleading appeals to emotion, personality, or social status, such as false accusations, name-calling, and defamation, fall under the category of accidental fallacies. These methods undermine the logical structure of the argument by shifting attention to extraneous or irrelevant factors.
In the modern context, propaganda techniques often rely on pseudo-reasoning and are used to shape public opinion by manipulating emotions and creating biases. Such methods involve using emotional appeal, statistical overload, and misleading sources to convince people of an idea without proper logical support.
Conclusion
The identification of fallacies—whether essential or accidental—remains a cornerstone of logical reasoning. Whether in the formation of definitions or the construction of arguments, fallacies disrupt the coherence of valid reasoning. Understanding and identifying these errors is crucial for anyone engaged in rigorous intellectual inquiry, as fallacies can easily cloud judgment and mislead conclusions.
Chapter Three: The Revelation of Divine Truths in the Holy Qur’an
Introduction
In my childhood, I experienced love. I was very young when I felt love for the Holy Qur’an. The first book I cherished and connected with during my early years was the Holy Qur’an. It was my first companion in the material world, and of all books, I have spent the most time with the Qur’an.
Though I was a child and could not understand words and letters, I felt a profound connection to the meaning and truth of the Qur’an. I saw its meanings clearly, even before I could read it. From that moment, I knew that in order to truly benefit from the Qur’an, one must become close to it and develop a deep relationship with this Divine Book. A recommended method for engaging with the Qur’an is to place it closed in front of you, sit with purity, and face the Qibla, so that the Qur’an can impart its wisdom directly to you.
Anyone who establishes such a bond with the Qur’an will find themselves in the presence of the truth contained in this heavenly book, receiving its profound insights. In this way, it is not the person reading the Qur’an but rather the Qur’an itself that reads and reveals its truths to the reader. The path to understanding the Qur’anic knowledge lies in coming closer to this sacred book.
When I place the Qur’an on my heart, I feel peace, just as a mother feels when she embraces her child, holding her heart against the child’s. Every time I place the Qur’an on my heart, I feel as though the Divine Book is reading me and revealing its meaning to me. When I speak, my unconscious mind often expresses the Qur’anic knowledge because of the deep connection I have with it. Even before I attended school and learned to read, I understood the essence and meaning of the Qur’anic verses—though I did not yet know their written form. Later, when I was able to read the written Qur’an, I would place it on my heart and find that its meanings flowed to me. This was my experience during my childhood.
There have been times when I would place the closed Qur’an in front of me and gaze at it for long periods, much like a lover gazes at their beloved with joy and longing. I would often gaze at the words “Al-Qur’an Al-Karim” on its cover for hours. When I placed the Qur’an on my chest, my breathing would deepen and quicken. As a child, I was in love with the Qur’an. When I removed the Qur’an from my chest, my breathing would return to normal.
The method I have for engaging with the Qur’an and extracting its meanings and interpretations I learned during my childhood, and no one taught me this method. The interpretative method I have adopted, which I based my “Tafseer Hudaa” (Interpretation of Guidance) upon, was discovered by me through personal experience. If I were to speak for years about the Qur’an, my words would never end.
My interpretation is the result of a deep connection and companionship with the Qur’an, not the outcome of reading this book or that book. My interpretation is entirely unique to me, and you will not find it anywhere else. It is the expression of my inner thoughts, feelings, and deep, constant presence with the Qur’an—not simply the act of reading it.
While I do not limit the understanding of the Qur’an to this method alone, I believe this is the fastest and most effective way to grasp its knowledge.
I have spent most of my time in the presence of the sacred Qur’an. Every time I hold the Qur’an, it feels new to me. Even when I look at different printings of the Qur’an, I find new meanings. It’s as if, even though the print is the same, the act of engaging with different versions somehow imparts new meanings.
Throughout all my research, the Qur’an has been my primary reference. On the pulpit, I only spoke from the verses of the Qur’an, for quoting the Qur’an is always noble.
Among the many books I have taught—from literature, jurisprudence, mysticism, philosophy, sociology, economics, psychology, and related fields—none have had the same attraction for me as the Qur’an. It has been my love and my constant source of guidance. I learned about Prophethood and the Divine Revelation through the Qur’an. Revelation—specifically the Prophetic form, as opposed to the legislative type—has no end. It is a human attribute, similar to poetry, that appears in certain people at certain times. Revelation, especially for humans whose understanding can deepen over time, continues to grow. Just as God’s knowledge is infinite, His words are eternal, and Prophetic guidance does not cease. The finality of revelation applies only to the legislative type, and anyone who comes thereafter follows the final law.
The Qur’an is a book that requires companionship with it to truly understand its depth. Without the guidance of the Commander of the Faithful (Ali ibn Abi Talib), no one can succeed in its companionship. Without the Ahl al-Bayt (the family of the Prophet) and their purity, it is impossible to truly benefit from the Qur’an. From all the things in this world and the next, if I could choose only one thing, it would be the Qur’an, and with it, I would need nothing else. The Qur’an is an infinite and boundless book, encompassing everything. In my view, it is the “identity card of everything.” The Qur’an is a living truth that can be placed on the heart or carried within the soul. As the Qur’an itself says:
“We have sent down to you the Book which explains everything, a guidance, a mercy, and glad tidings for the Muslims” (Qur’an, 16:89).
Every other book is limited in scope and finite in time, and it lacks the purity of truth. It ages and becomes outdated. However, the Qur’an is timeless, always relevant, and continuously fresh. For anyone who truly engages with it, the Qur’an will always be a source of knowledge, guidance, and wisdom.
The Qur’an is a treasure, openly given by God to His servants, but often it is not valued. In discussions of information protection and psychology, they say: “Place your valuable possessions where they are visible, so that no one will tamper with them.” The Qur’an is an open treasure, and its visibility often leads to negligence and abandonment.
The path to spiritual perfection is through the guardianship of the Commander of the Faithful. For the past 1,400 years, Islam has been lost because it has distanced itself from the path of the Commander of the Faithful. As a result, fifty Muslim countries have faced failure and stagnation. Just as Islam cannot be understood without the guidance of Ali, the path to perfection cannot be achieved without the Qur’an and its wisdom. All knowledge is contained within the Qur’an. Jurisprudence, philosophy, mysticism, and every other branch of knowledge must bow before the Qur’an in humility. Only then can they lead to purity of heart, clarity of mind, and true success.
The Qur’an must be the foundation of all knowledge, and I have derived all the knowledge I have studied from it.
Throughout my fifty years of teaching, I have always started my lessons with the Qur’an. There was only one day when I considered starting my lesson with Hadith instead, but something happened that prevented me from doing so. That was the only time in my life that I attempted to teach without starting from the Qur’an, and I thank God that it didn’t happen. I consider this a divine guidance:
“Our Lord, do not let our hearts deviate after You have guided us, and grant us mercy from Yourself; surely, You are the Bestower.” (Qur’an, 3:8).
This guidance should always be sought from God. Distance from the Qur’an is deviation and misguidance. For all the years I have been teaching or conducting research, I have never started any discussion without first referencing the Qur’an. That one day when I considered beginning with Hadith, I quickly changed my mind. Hadith are secondary sources. On that day, I had planned to discuss the number of angels and their various roles—topics which are extensively covered in Hadith.
For every topic, my first reference is the Qur’an, which is the greatest source of knowledge. One night, I became troubled when I was thinking about not starting with the Qur’an. When I went to open the Qur’an, I felt ashamed. In jurisprudence, I always begin with the Qur’an, asking what God’s law says before moving on to Hadith and the books of the scholars.
Tafseer Hudaa (Interpretation of Guidance)
The “Tafseer Hudaa” is based on my deep connection with the Qur’an. In this interpretation, I discuss the meaning, significance, and effects of the verses of the Qur’an. However, to truly explain the grandeur of each verse and provide a worthy interpretation, one would need to create an entire city dedicated to the Qur’an, where scholars from every field would be housed, and they would be taught the method of engaging with the Qur’an in depth, allowing them to explore all its meanings.
Four volumes of this interpretation have been published, the first containing introductory discussions on the method of interpretation. The second volume deals exclusively with the interpretation of the Basmalah, while the other two volumes focus on the remaining verses of Surah Al-Fatiha. I have also completed the interpretation of Surah Al-Baqarah in full.
The method of entering into the Qur’an is through sincere companionship with its inner truth. This is a method I have followed since childhood. In “Tafseer Hudaa,” I have shared only a small portion of the insights I have gathered
Chapter Three: The Revelation of Divine Truths in the Holy Qur’an
Introduction
In my childhood, I experienced love. I was very young when I felt love for the Holy Qur’an. The first book I cherished and connected with during my early years was the Holy Qur’an. It was my first companion in the material world, and of all books, I have spent the most time with the Qur’an.
Though I was a child and could not understand words and letters, I felt a profound connection to the meaning and truth of the Qur’an. I saw its meanings clearly, even before I could read it. From that moment, I knew that in order to truly benefit from the Qur’an, one must become close to it and develop a deep relationship with this Divine Book. A recommended method for engaging with the Qur’an is to place it closed in front of you, sit with purity, and face the Qibla, so that the Qur’an can impart its wisdom directly to you.
Anyone who establishes such a bond with the Qur’an will find themselves in the presence of the truth contained in this heavenly book, receiving its profound insights. In this way, it is not the person reading the Qur’an but rather the Qur’an itself that reads and reveals its truths to the reader. The path to understanding the Qur’anic knowledge lies in coming closer to this sacred book.
When I place the Qur’an on my heart, I feel peace, just as a mother feels when she embraces her child, holding her heart against the child’s. Every time I place the Qur’an on my heart, I feel as though the Divine Book is reading me and revealing its meaning to me. When I speak, my unconscious mind often expresses the Qur’anic knowledge because of the deep connection I have with it. Even before I attended school and learned to read, I understood the essence and meaning of the Qur’anic verses—though I did not yet know their written form. Later, when I was able to read the written Qur’an, I would place it on my heart and find that its meanings flowed to me. This was my experience during my childhood.
There have been times when I would place the closed Qur’an in front of me and gaze at it for long periods, much like a lover gazes at their beloved with joy and longing. I would often gaze at the words “Al-Qur’an Al-Karim” on its cover for hours. When I placed the Qur’an on my chest, my breathing would deepen and quicken. As a child, I was in love with the Qur’an. When I removed the Qur’an from my chest, my breathing would return to normal.
The method I have for engaging with the Qur’an and extracting its meanings and interpretations I learned during my childhood, and no one taught me this method. The interpretative method I have adopted, which I based my “Tafseer Hudaa” (Interpretation of Guidance) upon, was discovered by me through personal experience. If I were to speak for years about the Qur’an, my words would never end.
My interpretation is the result of a deep connection and companionship with the Qur’an, not the outcome of reading this book or that book. My interpretation is entirely unique to me, and you will not find it anywhere else. It is the expression of my inner thoughts, feelings, and deep, constant presence with the Qur’an—not simply the act of reading it.
While I do not limit the understanding of the Qur’an to this method alone, I believe this is the fastest and most effective way to grasp its knowledge.
I have spent most of my time in the presence of the sacred Qur’an. Every time I hold the Qur’an, it feels new to me. Even when I look at different printings of the Qur’an, I find new meanings. It’s as if, even though the print is the same, the act of engaging with different versions somehow imparts new meanings.
Throughout all my research, the Qur’an has been my primary reference. On the pulpit, I only spoke from the verses of the Qur’an, for quoting the Qur’an is always noble.
Among the many books I have taught—from literature, jurisprudence, mysticism, philosophy, sociology, economics, psychology, and related fields—none have had the same attraction for me as the Qur’an. It has been my love and my constant source of guidance. I learned about Prophethood and the Divine Revelation through the Qur’an. Revelation—specifically the Prophetic form, as opposed to the legislative type—has no end. It is a human attribute, similar to poetry, that appears in certain people at certain times. Revelation, especially for humans whose understanding can deepen over time, continues to grow. Just as God’s knowledge is infinite, His words are eternal, and Prophetic guidance does not cease. The finality of revelation applies only to the legislative type, and anyone who comes thereafter follows the final law.
The Qur’an is a book that requires companionship with it to truly understand its depth. Without the guidance of the Commander of the Faithful (Ali ibn Abi Talib), no one can succeed in its companionship. Without the Ahl al-Bayt (the family of the Prophet) and their purity, it is impossible to truly benefit from the Qur’an. From all the things in this world and the next, if I could choose only one thing, it would be the Qur’an, and with it, I would need nothing else. The Qur’an is an infinite and boundless book, encompassing everything. In my view, it is the “identity card of everything.” The Qur’an is a living truth that can be placed on the heart or carried within the soul. As the Qur’an itself says:
“We have sent down to you the Book which explains everything, a guidance, a mercy, and glad tidings for the Muslims” (Qur’an, 16:89).
Every other book is limited in scope and finite in time, and it lacks the purity of truth. It ages and becomes outdated. However, the Qur’an is timeless, always relevant, and continuously fresh. For anyone who truly engages with it, the Qur’an will always be a source of knowledge, guidance, and wisdom.
The Qur’an is a treasure, openly given by God to His servants, but often it is not valued. In discussions of information protection and psychology, they say: “Place your valuable possessions where they are visible, so that no one will tamper with them.” The Qur’an is an open treasure, and its visibility often leads to negligence and abandonment.
The path to spiritual perfection is through the guardianship of the Commander of the Faithful. For the past 1,400 years, Islam has been lost because it has distanced itself from the path of the Commander of the Faithful. As a result, fifty Muslim countries have faced failure and stagnation. Just as Islam cannot be understood without the guidance of Ali, the path to perfection cannot be achieved without the Qur’an and its wisdom. All knowledge is contained within the Qur’an. Jurisprudence, philosophy, mysticism, and every other branch of knowledge must bow before the Qur’an in humility. Only then can they lead to purity of heart, clarity of mind, and true success.
The Qur’an must be the foundation of all knowledge, and I have derived all the knowledge I have studied from it.
Throughout my fifty years of teaching, I have always started my lessons with the Qur’an. There was only one day when I considered starting my lesson with Hadith instead, but something happened that prevented me from doing so. That was the only time in my life that I attempted to teach without starting from the Qur’an, and I thank God that it didn’t happen. I consider this a divine guidance:
“Our Lord, do not let our hearts deviate after You have guided us, and grant us mercy from Yourself; surely, You are the Bestower.” (Qur’an, 3:8).
This guidance should always be sought from God. Distance from the Qur’an is deviation and misguidance. For all the years I have been teaching or conducting research, I have never started any discussion without first referencing the Qur’an. That one day when I considered beginning with Hadith, I quickly changed my mind. Hadith are secondary sources. On that day, I had planned to discuss the number of angels and their various roles—topics which are extensively covered in Hadith.
For every topic, my first reference is the Qur’an, which is the greatest source of knowledge. One night, I became troubled when I was thinking about not starting with the Qur’an. When I went to open the Qur’an, I felt ashamed. In jurisprudence, I always begin with the Qur’an, asking what God’s law says before moving on to Hadith and the books of the scholars.
Tafseer Hudaa (Interpretation of Guidance)
The “Tafseer Hudaa” is based on my deep connection with the Qur’an. In this interpretation, I discuss the meaning, significance, and effects of the verses of the Qur’an. However, to truly explain the grandeur of each verse and provide a worthy interpretation, one would need to create an entire city dedicated to the Qur’an, where scholars from every field would be housed, and they would be taught the method of engaging with the Qur’an in depth, allowing them to explore all its meanings.
Four volumes of this interpretation have been published, the first containing introductory discussions on the method of interpretation. The second volume deals exclusively with the interpretation of the Basmalah, while the other two volumes focus on the remaining verses of Surah Al-Fatiha. I have also completed the interpretation of Surah Al-Baqarah in full.
The method of entering into the Qur’an is through sincere companionship with its inner truth. This is a method I have followed since childhood. In “Tafseer Hudaa,” I have shared only a small portion of the insights I have gathered
The Holy Qur’an is the greatest and most remarkable scientific book, containing all knowledge and information in the smallest possible volume of words. Therefore, the language of the Qur’an is such that it can speak of anything and encompass every branch of knowledge. The language of the Qur’an, which expresses the truth of revelation, is a clear and explanatory language, one that conveys the truth and is not figurative or symbolic, requiring interpretation or explanation. Even its mysterious aspects, such as the disjointed letters (Muqattaʿat), are revealed and clarified within the Qur’an itself, and one must simply uncover them. The language of the Qur’an is miraculous, and its clarity is a manifestation of its miraculous nature. However, those with weak perception must learn the language of the Qur’an through the immaculate realm and the noble saints, for such education is found within the domain of language learning. Any shortcomings in understanding are due to ignorance and limitations of the individual, not because of any ambiguity or vagueness in the language itself.
The language of the Qur’an is clear and universal. Its universality is such that it speaks not only to scholars but also to ordinary people, bringing them a message that resonates at all levels. The identity and truth of the language of the Qur’an are inherently clear, and it unveils its meaning directly to those who recite it. As I mentioned earlier, gaining insight into the Qur’an’s language does not come through conventional academic study or reading one book after another—these are mere academic exercises and are not truly effective in reaching deep understanding. Rather, the method approved by the Qur’an itself for interpreting this sacred text is “intimacy with the verses of the Qur’an.”
Interpretation of the Qur’an
Beneath the apparent surface of the Qur’an lie layers, each of which has its own degrees, referred to as the “inner meaning” or the “hidden” layer of the Qur’an. The inner meaning of the Qur’an reflects the inner truths of all phenomena, and just as the detailed book of existence contains objective truths, the Qur’an is the comprehensive summary of all these truths. Through it, one can uncover every realm of knowledge and scientific proposition. The knowledge derived from these hidden layers is called ta’wil (interpretation). Ta’wil refers to the deeper essence of every phenomenon, whether it is the Qur’an or anything else. Ta’wil comes from the root “awl,” meaning a special and unique return to the essence of something. Every phenomenon has a reality, and the specific return to this reality is called ta’wil. Therefore, the ta’wil of the Qur’an refers to a return to the deeper truth of each verse and its hidden meaning.
Thus, ta’wil of the Qur’an is the method by which a purified soul navigates to the inner layers of the Qur’an, retrieving the essence and meaning of each phenomenon through a focused and scholarly approach, with the help of a divine virtue. This definition clarifies the difference between ta’wil and tafsir (interpretation), for the latter only engages with the surface meanings of the words, aiming to uncover the hidden questions and answers within them. The definition also highlights the relationship between the inner meanings and the words of the Qur’an, emphasizing that to understand any phenomenon, one must focus on the specific words related to it in the Qur’an. Only through specialized and expert attention to these words can one access the essence and truth of the phenomenon. Furthermore, it is only a purified soul that is able to reach ta’wil, as an impure soul is incapable of doing so.
Each verse of the Qur’an has an existential truth in the world, and its written form mirrors this truth. The word and meaning are united, and the Qur’an’s written form embodies the truth, which itself has an interpretation. It is not that the ta’wil of the Qur’an only returns to this truth; rather, it is the verse and its surface words themselves that contain the hidden meaning, which can have multiple and sequential manifestations.
Ta’wil requires “depth” or “penetration” (rusukh). Without rusukh, there is no ta’wil. Rusukh is an inner process, while entry (wurood) is an external one. Wurood refers to the written text itself, whereas rusukh involves penetration into the depth of a reality that is infinite and tangible, guiding us to its truth. Reaching that truth through rusukh is impossible without engaging with the surface meaning of the Qur’an, and to neglect this leads to misleading interpretations. The characteristic of rusukh is that it cannot contradict the surface text, and any interpretation that conflicts with the apparent meaning of the Qur’an is false. The interpretations of those deeply rooted in knowledge follow the surface text, with rusukh representing the path of entry.
Through frequent recitation of the Qur’an and becoming familiar with its divine words, one can approach the essence of every phenomenon to better understand it. This is only possible by developing intimacy with the Qur’an and drawing closer to this unique divine book, for it is through this process that one becomes knowledgeable about all phenomena and gains understanding of the past, present, and future.
The Criterion of the Qur’an
The path to the hidden meanings of the Qur’an lies in the realm of ta’wil, which enables the discovery of its concealed truths. Among these hidden truths is wilayah (divine authority), which is embedded in the Qur’an. For this reason, the Qur’an is referred to as al-Furqan (the Criterion):
(“And He revealed the Furqan”) (Qur’an 25:1).
The concept of wilayah is hidden in the Furqan of the Qur’an, and it is only the saints of God who have knowledge of it. The Qur’an emphasizes its nature as a Qur’an, as it advocates for unity, solidarity, and collective harmony, whereas Furqan signifies separation and division. The Qur’an does not endorse division, but rather the unity and collective cohesion of all.
The Science of Divination through the Qur’an
Among the sciences that can be derived from the Qur’an is the science of tafaul (divination), which involves predicting future events for individuals, communities, or other phenomena through the analysis of causes, reasons, and outcomes. The Qur’an is a register of existence and its phenomena, and anyone can extract the story of their own life through tafaul from it, seeing both their past and their future, or even foreseeing the political future of a country. Through this Qur’anic knowledge, one can gain awareness of many future events and hidden matters.
Note that tafaul differs from the occult matters, of which the Qur’an has spoken openly.
The Science of Istikhara through the Qur’an
The science of istikhara (seeking divine guidance) through the Qur’an is a divine and special knowledge that some of God’s friends are granted. This science is a gift from God, not an intellectual or acquired skill. The process of istikhara comes through the divine grace of God, not through human reasoning or memory. However, reason, through its wisdom, understands the legitimacy and truth of the process. Like the interpretation of dreams or knowledge of divine names, istikhara is an esoteric knowledge related to the unseen world, and faith in it implies belief in the hidden and unseen aspects of the world.
Qur’anic Healing
Every verse of the Qur’an has its own unique, effective power, such as healing and connecting with the unseen world, or providing knowledge of the unknown. If the Qur’an, the book of truths, is capable of revealing hidden matters and curing diseases, then surely it possesses immense power. Every verse of the Qur’an has an effect, but one must discover the method of accessing that effect. Researchers must delve into each verse, taking into account its specific attributes, and experiment with it in relation to different individuals to uncover its potential and properties. This research will pave the way for the saints of God to uncover these hidden secrets in the future.
For the use of Qur’anic therapy, one must be familiar with the sciences of phonetics, rhythm, and the musical notation of the Qur’an, which relate to the material composition of words, their pronunciation, and the rhythm of their expression. Additionally, understanding the melody of the Qur’an helps convey its meaning, even without knowing the Arabic language.
Purification from Superstitions through the Qur’an
I have long believed that there should be a discipline of “purification from superstitions” in academic circles, which aims to identify and eliminate religious and cultural superstitions, falsehoods, and excesses. This purification should be applied in all areas, whether cultural, social, religious, or otherwise. Superstitions often threaten academic and religious institutions, and religion cannot remain vibrant and relevant unless it is free of these impurities. Ignoring this process leads to the growth of superstitions.
The plants, animals driven by lust, wild beasts driven by rage, the deceptive cunning and temptation of demons, and the intellectual phenomena, alongside the angels of knowledge, sincerity, and purity, collectively embody the collective potential of humanity. An individual’s potential for these qualities is rooted in their true nature, but the perfection of humanity lies in its ability to realize this potential.
Animals, in their base nature, never tire of their desires and ferocity because lust and rage are intrinsic to their being. However, the human potential surpasses these base instincts. Humans tire of indulgence in lust, savagery, and devilishness, as these behaviors contradict the natural course of human life. The core and natural essence of humans is aligned with divine purpose, the vice-regency of the Creator, and the expansion of knowledge that resides in their essence. Humans do not tire of knowledge, for it is not material but inherently fulfilling, with an insatiable hunger for understanding.
An animal with base or ferocious qualities expresses these with sincerity and, in this way, embodies a form of primal love. An animal, acting purely, seeks only what it desires, achieving satisfaction without hypocrisy. In contrast, angels, saints, and the righteous, embody this sincerity, as their purity is reflected in their knowledge. Devils, on the other hand, embody deception and manipulation without sincerity.
Truth (صدق) is based on two pillars: awareness in thought and character, and freedom and fairness in action. In other words, truth is an intrinsic matter, while fairness emerges from this truth and is external. Responsibility manifests in actions. The root of love, truth, and fairness lies in these principles.
There are three major obstacles to an individual’s sincerity and true self-realization: the superficialities of tradition, authority, and religion. These are all born from the influence of cultural customs, religious practices, and political power, none of which are rational or deeply spiritual. Fighting these superficialities prepares the ground for the emergence of truth and love, which can only be fully realized through a return to the source of divine revelation—the Qur’an.
A community is one of truth when its members, Muslim or non-Muslim, follow the principles of truth, whether through religious commandments or civic rights, as they have willingly accepted them. A Muslim adheres to “truth,” and a non-Muslim adheres to “reality.” True sincerity manifests in “fairness” and “justice” for a just society and in “love” and “spiritual guidance” for a society of guardianship (wilayah). A society must either be based on justice or guardianship. In just societies, sincerity manifests as real fairness, needing no faith or truth, while in societies of guardianship, sincerity manifests as real love and affection, rooted in “wilayah.”
Thus, a truly free or authentic society is either monotheistic and religious or real and civic. Any society built on lies is corrupt and unjust. In a society of guardianship, the heart, love, and truth reign, with the human being being central—society itself is merely a reflection of the individual’s heart. In such a society, the heart is the leader and cause of unity, as hearts that create an atmosphere of oneness around the leader converge, making all hearts one. Just as God has a personal unity, the heart, too, becomes unified in a singular purpose, aligning with the true leader.
A civil society may achieve fairness and justice but lacks the capacity to promote sacrifice, empathy, affection, or love. Such a society may be healthy but lacks the ultimate spiritual well-being. While it provides material comfort, it leads to weariness and stagnation, as it does not address the spiritual needs of humanity. Experience-based, material-focused societies substitute feelings and emotions with a purely sensory, experiential approach that weakens the capacity for genuine emotional connection.
The Path to Truth and Divine Knowledge
To reach true sincerity and love, an individual must understand their own path to success, recognizing their potential and pursuing it. This requires knowing their “Lord” (Rabb). There is no path to God except through understanding the “Lord.”
The paths to divine truth are not many but are singular, and this path is the “Straight Path.” What unites this path is the nature of the “Rabb” (Lord), whose essence gives direction to the individual’s journey. Each person has a unique “Rabb,” and all phenomena ultimately lead to the singular essence of God.
To know the self, one must first understand one’s essential nature, followed by the recognition of one’s attributes, characteristics, and the actions derived from them. Actions are a manifestation of both essence and attributes. Gaining awareness of these elements allows an individual to understand their actions. While one can catalog numerous actions, the understanding of one’s inherent nature and attributes requires a deeper and rarer level of reflection.
Negative attributes of the soul include fear, restraint, and an inclination toward comfort. Positive attributes, on the other hand, include freedom and autonomy. These inherent qualities can be discovered only when an individual is freed from social norms, religious constraints, and public image. Only then can one discover their true nature. One may behave in a socially acceptable manner within a closed environment, but when freed from such constraints, their true character emerges. Understanding one’s essence requires liberation from all external influences, including societal rules, education, and religious injunctions.
Spiritual Development and Divine Guidance
Divine guidance operates naturally and systematically. Just as water in colder regions freezes without external intervention, all phenomena of existence follow a natural order that leads them to their destined place. The Qur’an describes this natural progression: “All are swimming in a sphere” (Quran 21:33). Each phenomenon has its own orbit, a path uniquely designed for its existence.
The act of naming, highly emphasized in Islam, serves to help parents and individuals recognize the essence of a person and raise them according to their true nature. If names are chosen in alignment with divine wisdom, they provide insight into the path and potential of the individual.
Academically and intellectually, institutions that aim to nurture individuals must recognize each person’s intrinsic qualities and potential, aligned with their unique nature and capabilities. Otherwise, they risk leading individuals down paths that do not align with their true selves, causing dissatisfaction and failure.
The Condition of Belief in God and Success
Ultimately, the path to truth and success requires recognition of the “Rabb” and understanding one’s unique potential. All humans have an innate drive toward God. If they cannot find God, they will create false gods or substitutes in their lives. This is a fundamental aspect of human nature. The desire for God is inherent, and if true knowledge of God is lacking, people will create false gods to satisfy this need. This reflects a basic human need for spiritual nourishment.
Human beings inherently seek to connect with God. As the body needs food, water, and air for physical survival, the soul needs God for its spiritual survival. The soul is naturally inclined toward God, and without this connection, it becomes spiritually malnourished. If a person does not experience this connection with God, they will seek other, false means of fulfillment.
The Inhabitants of Hell:
(Say, “Shall We inform you of the greatest losers in actions? Those whose efforts are wasted in this world while they think they are doing good. Those are the ones who have disbelieved in the signs of their Lord and in meeting Him; so their deeds are void, and We will not assign to them any weight on the Day of Resurrection. That is their recompense—Hell—because of their disbelief and mockery of My signs and My messengers.”) (Qur’an, 18:103-106).
Faith must be firmly rooted in the heart, and just as a drop of water, if it falls on a stone for an extended period, penetrates it, so too must faith be continuously channelled into one’s heart and soul. In the words of Prophet Abraham (peace be upon him), one must remain steadfast in Islam until the moment of death, lest one is caught unaware and dies without it: (And Abraham instructed his sons, as did Jacob, saying, “O my sons, indeed Allah has chosen for you the religion, so do not die except while you are Muslims.”) (Qur’an, 2:132).
“Faith” is the most crucial factor in dispelling fear, for faith connects a person to a higher and all-encompassing force that has the power to avert harm. Faith prevents many anxieties and tensions, which is why Allah confers a great favour upon His believing servant: (They count it a favour to you that they have accepted Islam. Say, “Do not count your Islam as a favour to me. Rather, Allah has favoured you that He has guided you to faith, if you should be among the truthful.”) (Qur’an, 49:17). The force of faith operates through love and does not leave its creation abandoned. The weaker one’s faith becomes, the more fear consumes them. “Fear” and “security,” much like “disbelief” and “faith,” are intrinsic qualities; neither can be described as non-existent.
The Collective System of Truth and Faith:
Allah conducts His actions according to a collective system. This is why seeking help and assistance, as well as intercession, prayer, and supplication, all make sense within this system. The servant is a manifestation of Allah’s will, and Allah is the ultimate cause and manifestation of the servant’s actions. In the true executor of actions, there is no division between the doer and the action itself. The servant’s action is an expression of Allah’s action, and in the reality of execution, there is no distinction between the power of the servant and that of the Divine. The action of Allah and the servant is not in a hierarchical or dualistic sense; it is rather a seamless and non-distinct process. In the context of human duties and commands, the servant is nothing but the manifestation of Allah’s actions.
Hence, the servant is not devoid of knowledge and power; rather, it is Allah who, in His perfect system, makes human actions fall within the scope of knowledge and power He has granted. The system of duties, rewards, and punishments is established by Allah, without the action being entirely attributed to the servant. Every action is determined by numerous causes and factors, and the person is but one of those factors, though ultimately it is Allah who governs all. From the father’s lineage, to the environment, to social influences, to the Divine itself—all play roles in determining even the smallest actions of a person. I refer to this perspective as “the collective and shared nature of deeds.”
Guidance towards Truth:
We have said that truth is about finding one’s natural path and walking it. Therefore, guidance must be based on life, movement, and the special journey each individual has. (Guide us to the straight path, the path of those upon whom You have bestowed Your grace…) (Qur’an, 1:6-7) means that one seeks to follow a path that is natural to them, one that is in harmony with their growth and potential. Allah governs all existence directly, without delegating the management of any realm. Allah, in His absolute sovereignty, directs all worlds and all creatures.
It is only through Allah’s guidance that anyone can guide another. As it is said in the Qur’an: (Indeed, you do not guide whom you like, but Allah guides whom He wills, and He is most knowing of the rightly guided.) (Qur’an, 28:56). Thus, it is essential to rely on Allah in every movement and every act, for without His guidance, no one can help another.
Finding One’s True Path and Purpose:
In life, it is of utmost importance that each individual recognises their nature and capabilities. The religion teaches the way of life by revealing one’s true path. It is vital to distinguish between the qualities of those who are guided and those who are misguided. Without the necessary insight to recognise them, a person might stray from the true path, leading to great harm, losing both their worldly well-being and their eternal happiness.
The “graced” ones are those who have received Allah’s blessings without effort, and their path is one of guidance. On the other hand, those who are misguided—referred to as the lost ones—are those who reject this guidance. Their path is one of deviation, and the way of salvation lies in following the guided path. The “graced ones” and the “lost ones” must be distinguished, as failing to recognise these categories could lead to spiritual ruin.
The path of those who are graced is intimately linked to the guidance of the Imams and the Prophets, and it is their path that one must seek in order to achieve salvation. The Imams, starting with the Five Pure Ones, represent the highest form of spiritual guidance. However, the path is not always simple to follow, and one must strive to remain on it.
Recognising the Natural Path:
In the mundane realm, each individual must find their specific path and talents. Faith does not merely consist of worship or rituals; it is about recognising one’s true purpose and acting in accordance with it. There is no one who is entirely devoid of good or evil qualities. Even the most seemingly negative traits can be part of a person’s inner potential, which may manifest in future generations.
It is crucial to know one’s true path, as wandering aimlessly through life leads to dissatisfaction. Those who follow their natural course find peace and contentment. Those who do not, however, often live a life of discontent and loss. This is why understanding one’s true nature and purpose is so important in the journey of life.
Chapter 4: The Philosophy of Being and Manifestation / Ontology
A philosopher must seek to discover being freely and recognize its effects. They must understand being through direct, objective, and efficacious means so they can conceptualize it and form an ontological philosophical system. It should be noted that this conceptual narration expresses the reference of being and is directed towards it, as the mere concept of being or manifestation is not the subject of philosophical discussion. Although, in the context of teaching, the philosopher is necessarily forced to use concepts to communicate their philosophical truths and content, these concepts are applied with respect to their objective and external referents.
Philosophy is a mental narration of the truth of being and its effects and attributes. We will analyze this mental narration in the section on “Epistemology” and argue that this concept is directed towards the external world and corresponds with it.
Rational Philosophy
Rational philosophy is a theoretical thought that requires refinement for growth and movement. Its refinement is through knowledge and the attainment of truth. Thought needs vision, closeness of the heart, and proximity to truths to understand them and build wise thought from them, thereby shaping the narrative of attaining truth and reality into a reflective and reasoned framework. Philosophy generates scientific and mental propositions from empirical matters. The truth of being is attained through the soul’s union with being and proximity to it, and its effects, judgments, and manifestations are justified both logically and intuitively. Philosophy serves as both a prerequisite for mysticism and wisdom and draws its propositions from those higher and objective sciences. When mysticism and wisdom speak, they become philosophy. The relationship between philosophy and mysticism is symbiotic, and each complements the other. Philosophy is rational, verbal, and conceptual, whereas mysticism is a direct encounter with being, with no proof except inner vision and experience of truth.
Our Philosophical System
Our philosophical system is composed of three main parts: Ontology, Anthropology, and Epistemology, which are outlined further below. These three themes are discussed in detail in the philosophy.
Ontology
“Being” has essence, independence, necessity, unity, while “manifestations” have necessity but lack essence and independence. Being is the truth of existence. There is no negation opposing this being, and manifestation is its intrinsic necessity. Being is infinite and boundless, and manifestation exists fully in alignment with being and is infinite and without limits.
The relationship between being and manifestation is an inherent necessity and there is no separation or deficiency between them. Manifestation remains in accordance with the everlasting and eternal existence of being. Just as being is both real and absolute, its manifestation is likewise absolute, and this leads to the necessary relationship between them. The absolute nature of manifestation also ensures that one particle of manifestation is equal to all other particles. However, this absoluteness applies to the truth of manifestation, not the particular manifestation that serves as a vessel for this truth. This truth is the manifestation of love, and being is the loving agent within it. We will further discuss the relationship between being and manifestation.
Individuation and Determination
In philosophy, we have the person of being. Being has individuation. Individuation pertains to individual characteristics. Being has individuation in its essence, while the individuation of manifestation is contingent on the level it attains. Every manifestation is a person, having individuation both in identity and in attributes. In addition to individuation, manifestation has determination, but being itself does not possess determination. Manifestation is subject to endless change and transformation. It is the aspects of manifestation that vary, but determination—the container for these levels—does not change or deviate. For this reason, each manifestation remains itself.
Being does not have distinction, for distinction always occurs between two beings, and being itself has unity and does not allow for distinction.
Unity
The unity of being does not require proof, but any claim of multiple beings must provide evidence. Therefore, doubt about being is not possible, and there are no degrees within being. What is multiple are manifestations, and the degrees arise from the attributes of manifestations, without implying any multiplicity within being itself. The intensity of qualitative attributes, the increase in quantity, and the distinction of being in terms of quantity and quality all belong to the system of nature, not being.
We understand the system of being and manifestation as based on unity, individuation, and the interrelationship of manifestations, and no composition, connection, or separation applies to them. As a result, there is no space for any “less” or “more” to be connected or separated. In this philosophical system, categories are completely discarded, and one must resort to empirical sciences to understand terrestrial phenomena. However, for empirical sciences to correctly understand phenomena, they must take a path of connection and traverse a path of love to access their essence.
The Simplicity of Being
Given that being is synonymous with unity, and being is also synonymous with actuality, and the actuality of anything is the true form and essence that does not admit of composition, being is simple, not composite. In this way, the personal unity of being is one in essence, unity, and actuality— a pure and simple truth with no room for discussion of multiplicity in being. Hence, the theory of “unity of being in the face of multiplicity” (as posited by Mulla Sadra) has no place here. Multiplicity is in the realm of the manifestation and follows it in a linear manner, not existing in parallel with it.
Equivalence does not mean equality. Equivalence refers to the relationship between two concepts that are unified in a single meaning, like “human” and “man,” which are conceptually unified, but distinct in different ways. Since equivalence requires semantic identity, and we reject semantic redundancy, two concepts cannot have equivalence and unity in the philosophical sense. Therefore, unity, actuality, and the true form of being are identical in their referents, not their conceptual meanings. We borrow the term “equivalence” from Mulla Sadra’s discourse to articulate the simplicity of being according to our own viewpoint.
Essence and Existence
Being does not possess essence, limit, or definition and does not accept divisions or classifications. I do not agree with the theory of “the primacy of being and the derivation of essence.” Essence, in my view, is purely a mental concept and linguistic term, not something that possesses independent existence. Being, in its true sense, does not have essence; essence is a mental concept that appears as a title for determination, a title that has no external effect. The determinations of being are merely labels attributed to it in the process of thought.
Manifestation, likewise, does not possess essence and does not accept any form of division.
Since essence is purely a mental concept, the discussions of necessity, impossibility, possibility, and the creation of essence or its addition to being, as well as cause and effect, substance and accident, and categories, belong outside the scope of this philosophy. These are mental concepts and analyses that, while anyone may imagine them, have no external counterpart. The categories discussed in philosophy are descriptive concepts that refer to attributes and characteristics of particular levels of being, presented scientifically, not as representations of the external world.
The Role of Mental Concepts in Philosophy
Because being is personal and does not involve multiplicity, many logical discussions need to be rethought. For instance, the concepts of negation, opposition, and contrast are completely discarded from logic. Although there is opposition and levels in phenomena due to the unity and manifestation of being, the extreme opposites do not make sense because, in manifestation, there is no finality or end. Being, because it is personal and unified, cannot have essence or limitation. Neither being nor manifestation is universal, and manifestation, likewise, is individual and personal.
The Nature of Creation
Manifestation neither has essence, is not accidental, nor possible. Hence, it is not subject to creation. Manifestation is not creation, nor emergence, nor is it the creation of being from non-being. It is an inseparable necessity of being, eternal and necessary.
The Abstract Nature of Being and the Rejection of Prime Matter
Being is pure abstraction with no beginning, end, or direction. Contrary to what Mulla Sadra suggests, matter is not part of being. Being does not have the traits of materiality and cannot be reduced to the combination of form and matter. One must use the methods of empirical and natural sciences to explore matter, while abstract and universal concepts are investigated rationally. Manifestation has no matter or passive potentiality—it is not something that accepts anything from outside but reveals and unfolds from within itself.
The structure and movement of being have no specific direction; it does not proceed from one path to another. The movement of being is infinite, circular, and free.
In general, the characteristic of manifestation is its inherent ability to attract and unfold endlessly. This attraction and unfolding may be natural and aligned with the progression of descent, or coercive, leading to deviation and error.
Determinacy and Unity in Ontology
In philosophical ontology, we cannot speak of the essence of existence without considering its determinacy. Existence has two types of determinacy: the essential determinate unity (Ahdiyyat) and the determinate perfection of unity (Wahdiyyat). The essence of being is the manifestation of Ahdiyyat in the consideration of divine unity (God as my essence) and the manifestation of Wahdiyyat in the consideration of multiplicity (God as our essence). This singular reality, with these determinacies, exists in a continuous and dynamic state of self-manifestation.
The Concept of “Anniyyah” (Selfhood)
Another concept we have analyzed extensively is the proposition “The necessary being’s essence is its existence” (“inniyyat mahaityh”) which we critiqued in depth, addressing its fundamental issues, particularly regarding the combination of the necessity of being. We also provided counterarguments to Mulla Sadra’s reasoning for asserting this thesis. Additionally, we explained how the immutable essence relates to mutable phenomena and transformations, as well as how the divine knowledge connects with the flux of mutable realities.
Types of Possibility
In the discussion of the three types of possibility, we have outlined: general possibility (imkan ‘am), specific possibility (imkan khas), necessary possibility (imkan akhas), and potential reception (imkan istiqbaali). These are merely the mental abstractions of concepts that the mind is unaware of. By negating the essence, the possibilities that pertain to it also vanish from the realm of reality. If the subject of possibility is the essence in its totality, it is termed as essential possibility.
If the subject of possibility pertains to fixed entities or scientific appearances, this is referred to as scientific possibility. We do not ascribe true possibility to scientific phenomena, which we regard as necessary, eternal, and infinite. God’s knowledge is not confined to these appearances but extends beyond them into the realms of Wahdiyyat and Ahdiyyat, even transcending them within His essence. We have elaborated on the characteristics of these fixed entities in an innovative manner and clarified God’s unique knowledge, which is central to our philosophical perspective. God’s knowledge is not of something separate from the truths of existence, but rather, divine knowledge itself is the unfolding and realization of these truths.
The Possibility of Receptivity (Imkan Istiqaabiyyah)
Receptive possibility is a mental abstraction of an uncertainty regarding whether a particular manifestation will emerge in the future, as its emergence is neither necessary nor impossible. Receptive possibility reflects a form of ignorance about the future, for example, “Zayd will write tomorrow, possibly.” Overall, existence does not necessarily entail essence, and necessity is a quality of existence that exists only relative to the corporeal world, except for the lives of those inherently and originally connected to the divine existence by causality and necessity, not by coercion.
The Possibility of Poverty (Imkan Faqri)
In Mulla Sadra’s philosophy, the possibility of poverty pertains to a contingent, dependent existence. We view manifestation as an inherent relation and find it unnecessary to create a special term for it such as contingent poverty. In our writings, we prefer the term “manifestation of love” to describe this concept. Though manifestation is not existence in itself, it is not non-existence either. It is a form of existence, and thus it cannot be described as poverty, although we may say that the manifestation in its developmental phase does not possess independence, making the concept of poverty applicable in certain respects.
The Concept of Temporal Emergence (Huduth)
It must be noted that existence cannot undergo emergence, nor can essence in the external world be subject to emergence. The very notion of emergence is a mental abstraction, applied to a concept based on prior mental knowledge. The concept of emergence does not apply to the essential appearance of existence itself, but rather to the specific manifestations that arise from it, which are bound to the principle of necessity. Emergence is only applicable to specific instances of manifestation, not the essence itself.
The Relation Between Existence and Manifestation
There is no opposition between existence and manifestation, because existence embodies everything actively and positively, without any need for an external foundation. Therefore, manifestation cannot arise from elsewhere, as it is not a negation or absence, but an additional mode of existence. Manifestation is not negation or non-existence but is simply the determined state of existence, which takes on its various modes of expression. Existence is pure affirmation, and manifestation is a specific form of this affirmation— it is a relation of existence, not a separate entity.
Love and Attraction in Manifestation
The universe follows a specific, harmonious system, where attraction and love play central roles. Existence and manifestation are inherently bound by the attraction of love, and this is what brings the world into harmony. The concept of “attraction” or “love” has two faces: shauq (desire) and ishq (love). Desire moves towards the unseen, while love preserves what has been found. The key is to transform the attraction of desire into the love of unity.
The manifestations are all forms of a singular love, which has been revealed through the essence of existence itself. The very reason for the emergence of phenomena is love, not mere philosophical possibility or linguistic occurrence. Every manifestation is an essential necessity of existence itself, a necessary relation and consequence of being, rather than something that arises from a separate cause.
Existence and Its Essential and Innate Motion
Existence, despite its stability, possesses an essential and existential motion. The motion of existence manifests in the entirety of its manifestation. Therefore, no form of stillness can exist in either existence or its manifestation, although stability and preservation reign supreme over all. Existence and manifestation are inherently in motion. Existence possesses life, and life cannot exist without motion. In addition to the existential motion, existence also possesses an expressive motion. Manifestation, likewise, has an inherent motion. Some stages of manifestation also have specific movements of their own. It must be emphasized that defining motion and its attributes or some kinds of movement does not, in itself, bring about motion. In philosophy, the discussion has not centered on motion itself but rather on defining certain types of motion, such as motion within some accidental entities, like quality, or motion within material substance and its attributes, and the transition from potentiality to actuality, which defines the moving subject, rather than motion itself, particularly when confined to material matters.
However, motion is fundamentally part of existence. We do not adhere to the belief in potentiality, and we regard the system of manifestation and the relationship between inner and outer realities as true and objective. These inner actualities are drawn into manifestation. Even what philosophers consider potentiality is, in itself, the actuality of potentiality, even though we reject the concept of potentiality. Manifestation and determination are full of actuality and presence; there is no lack within them.
Motion is a descriptive phenomenon and has no essence of its own, although it is present within the moving entity; however, it possesses a truth that is descriptive. There is nothing that is not in a state of movement and renewal, although its perception requires acute sensory perception. The motion inherent in the manifestation makes it gradual, and even what seems sudden has subtle gradations. The motion of every manifestation of existence is, in a structured way, inherent to that manifestation itself, just as the intrinsic motion of existence is from itself, requiring no agent or mover outside of itself. Moreover, when we say that the motion of existence is intrinsic, no subject remains for an agent or a mover, as there is no stillness upon which motion could occur. Rather, the essence of everything is self-propelled in its progression. Even motion in manifestation and in every stage follows this same self-propelled and systematic process, even though it has no intrinsic essence, because manifestation does not arise from stillness but is formed through life, consciousness, motion, and the warmth produced by this movement and the love that follows it.
Motion is an essential and inseparable attribute of the life of consciousness, present in every direction and dimension. Stillness has no place in any manifestation, though manifestation possesses stability, and its stability arises from and within motion. Existence, along with its manifestation, does not engage in interaction or mutual influence, as manifestation lacks essence to have independent action. Instead, it acts in a shared and collective manner within motion, where all manifestations move together. The motion of manifestation is both from its core and can create movement through attraction and affinity among them. Motion, like existence, possesses individuality and personal unity, but its unity is neither of type nor of kind.
Motion neither arrives at stillness nor at contradiction; though it can lead to opposition or inconsistency, it can also direct voluntary movements in a path. Motion and the progression of any manifestation are guided by a framework that depends on the degree, capacity, and grace it receives, and the power derived from it. Power is the capacity for voluntary action, either to perform or refrain from something, guided by knowledge and will. Therefore, awareness and will are crucial components of power. The trajectory of knowledge and will gives the ability to attract and effectuate action, thereby imparting motion and progression. The greater the power and capacity of a person, the stronger their manifestation and the broader their growth trajectory, resulting in greater honor. The key is that the possessor of power must engage in the best, most necessary, most beneficial, and most righteous acts, rather than merely performing good deeds. Similarly, sin and impurity are seen as hindrances or deviations from the natural and free path of every phenomenon within the shared and relative system of the earthly world. Since this system is shared, the consequences of sin, especially major sins such as oppression, affect everyone, and no one can remain neutral toward it. However, minor sins, being realized within a shared system, are endless and perpetual, especially since nothing can truly perish or be annihilated, but instead it transforms to its peak or lowest point, and a phenomenon can reach all worlds.
Chapter Four: The Philosophy of Existence and Manifestation / Anthropology
It is essential to focus on the best actions rather than just good actions to bring about the healing of society through a policy of centralization. Power requires legitimacy to make its motion natural. Voluntary power, along with other conditions, is the subject of religious duty. In this context, we have discussed the action and agent, the different motivations of the human agent, and the distinctions between natural, coercive, subjugating, voluntary, deliberate, and receptive agents, and how the divine agent acts in manifestation and the unity of action, collective, and shared nature of deeds. We have also stated that manifestation operates according to a relative, conditional system and is involved in action to the extent of its power and its manifestation, with all manifestations acting collectively, except for the inherent lovers whose system is a necessary, causal one rather than a conditional one.
Existence too, exercises its control over the actions of manifestation, and its actions are shared, not distinct or multiple in a conflicting or contradictory manner. We have rejected the theory that the agency of manifestation is purely numerical or that the action in manifestation is merely external. Manifestation, by its nature, holds the power of self-expressive movement, though it is ineffective in interaction and mutual influence. This is because manifestation has no essence, and its role is inherently relational and occurs in the system of shared existence. Furthermore, manifestations reflect one another in a collective manner, and nothing occurs individually or in isolation, even though each phenomenon holds its own unity and simplicity.
Anthropology
One of the crucial areas in philosophy for me has been the discussion of anthropology. Many individuals claim not to understand it.
The Relationship Between Body and Soul
We do not consider a human to be merely the body, nor solely the soul, nor a mere combination of both. Matter and the immaterial undergo an interconnected and endless process of refinement, with matter gradually being refined into immateriality, and immateriality becoming dense and returning to material form. A person, starting predominantly with nature and material existence, acquires features and manifestations according to the proximity and engagement with each manifestation, and they can either descend or ascend. This appearance cannot be stripped away; once something becomes part of the human being, it cannot be detached. What we refer to as the “self” is an action and determination of the soul, not the soul itself, and this action cannot be separated from it. A person can take on an infinite number of appearances without anything being lost or externalized; likewise, nothing enters into it. The system of transformation and change is governed infinitely. Therefore, one should not consider a person as a duality or a combination of matter and immateriality.
Chapter 4: Philosophy of Being and Appearance / Epistemology
Any individual or society that can transform the strength of manifestation into power and combine power with wisdom, so that it does not devolve into oppression, corruption, force, or violence, will attain a life of well-being and ultimate happiness in the afterlife. Every human being will realise that they are a complete human being. The foundation of power is knowledge and understanding. Knowledge is also the foundation of sincerity.
Epistemology
The greatest issue in the humanities is the incorrect definition of “science” that it possesses.
I have conducted a detailed study on the epistemology of philosophy, presenting a new perspective that is distinct from what is found in the philosophies of Peripatetic, Illuminative, and Theological schools. Since essence has no place in our system of manifest existence, it cannot be used to explain cognitive faculties, understanding, or the relationship between the mind and the external world, particularly in the context of knowledge.
Knowledge is revelation. Our discourse on knowledge asserts that the knower does not encapsulate the known within themselves, and the unity between the knower and the known is not achieved through an actual merger; rather, knowledge is a determination within the knower that corresponds to the external reality. The determination of knowledge reveals the existential essence of the known, and the unity of the knower with their knowledge concerning the known is realised within this determination. Knowledge is an active, creative process, not merely the mental images or affirmations that are commonly conceived.
In the case of the Divine, knowledge is of the same nature as being, while in humans, it is of the nature of manifestation and transcends categorical limitations. That is, it is not a qualitative, subjective state; although a psychological manifestation is related to the external world, the relationship itself constitutes the essence of knowledge, and without this relationship, knowledge cannot exist.
Knowledge is the manifestation and creativity of the soul, and for the soul itself, it is present, not a mere occurrence of something from outside.
The human mind is a composite of material waves and the reflection of the arrangement of particles in the brain and its cells. It is linked to the human soul, which imparts to it the capacity to manifest its appearance.
Mental knowledge is entirely present and has no essence of its own; it cannot be conceived as an acquisition or as possessing an impressionable form. Knowledge is a psychic manifestation, meaning the soul has the creative power to form external phenomena within itself. For the soul, this knowledge is entirely present, but its presence can be strong or weak, with the weakest form being imagination. This manifestation of knowledge is, in fact, the manifestation of the soul, not that of the external world, and it reflects the intellectual capacity and power of the individual, not the external mind. Nevertheless, no mental knowledge is entirely disconnected from the external world, as it is influenced by it.
Every phenomenon, beyond its physical manifestation, has a manifestation in every world, and in the human soul—an entity that is from infinite divine realms and not a single type—it will also have a manifestation. Depending on the soul of each individual, this manifestation will vary in intensity and weakness. If the soul gains great power and strength, and becomes of the nature of light, i.e., relative abstract entities, it can perform extraordinary acts, miracles, and even transcend normal occurrences in any world, where the intensity of manifestation is in accordance with that world. The production of knowledge is similarly a manifestation within the soul itself—a manifestation that does not involve the creation of existence. As stated earlier, perception and understanding do not depend on essence but on existence and manifestation.
The soul has such subtlety and creative power that it can assign determination to all manifestations. Knowledge, like love, affection, pleasure, hatred, desire, pain, and even conscience and nature, is one of the psychic powers affected by external factors and dependent on them. It is not an entirely internal passive process. All mental knowledge forms through a relationship with the external world, whether it is through synthesis or analysis in the external world.
The soul invents knowledge within itself and assigns determination to it. Knowledge is the manifestation of the soul, not the influx of something from the outside. The soul does not receive anything from the outside, but rather creates what exists externally within itself. The knowledge within the soul has an external aspect, and it is not appropriate to refer to these external yet internal realities as “pseudo-external,” since the pseudo is not the reality itself. Knowledge is the manifestation of that reality, but it is a mental manifestation.
Knowledge is an action of the soul, and the soul assigns the knowledge its determinate form; that is, knowledge is the manifestation of the soul, and it emerges from the soul, while not being entirely separate from the external world. Knowledge derives its vitality from this external world, shaping external truths within itself. This is why it is vital to possess the capacity and tools to discern the particular external truths, in order to establish accurate scientific concepts and propositions. As a result, these concepts should also serve as a bridge to reach the external world, for if this reaching does not occur, the knowledge is not true knowledge.
Since knowledge is a facet of the soul, it is not of the nature of concept or essence, and cannot be acquired or reduced to quality. It is not subject to transformation, and no internal change occurs. Knowledge within the soul is a manifestation that is external but psychic, present but not to be mistaken for the external existence of the phenomenon. Just as external phenomena undergo change and transformation within their external realm, the mind too has the power to alter its own inventions within the mental domain. Every transformation and change in one truth has a unified underlying reality.
Knowledge is the manifestation of the determinations of external phenomena, and it reflects them in a manifested form. In other words, nothing from the outside enters the mind; rather, the soul creates a manifestation of it. The soul has the ability to create the external determinations within itself, presenting a manifestation that is neither identical to the outside nor entirely different from it. It is a manifestation of the outside. The soul can, through its creative abilities, make a mistake and create something contrary to the external reality. This subtlety and creative power of the soul, which is its strength, can also lead to error, bringing weakness into the process. Once again, we emphasise that the manifestation of knowledge is purely a manifestation of knowledge itself; it is neither a quality, a substance, nor an essence.
What exists within the soul is knowledge, not the known. However, the close relationship between knowledge and the known creates the illusion that the known exists in the mind. The known and the mental image are the objects of knowledge, but not knowledge itself. The known exists outside the mind, not within it. The mind sees the external form of the known, not the mental image that arises within the mind. Therefore, the difference in the object of knowledge does not result in a difference in knowledge. Nothing from outside is captured by the mind, but knowledge merely presents and manifests. The soul determines the knowledge and with it constructs an externalised knowledge that is distinct from the actual external reality; it is knowledge, and knowledge alone, subject to the soul and its mental abstraction.
The known reveals the external known, but the form of the external known is not the same; because there is no actual “known” in us. However, since knowledge cannot exist without the relation to the external world, it cannot create something separate from the external. Knowledge merely creates a mental image of the external known, which does not come from outside, but is a determination of the soul. Knowledge does not possess form; the mind sees meaning, but this meaning, because it has a form in the external world, gives rise to the misconception that the mental meaning has form.
The Stages of Knowledge
Knowledge has degrees of intensity and weakness, ranging from the lowest to the highest. Knowledge has infinite determinations, and its strength and weakness depend on the foundation of its premises, the will’s power, and the proximity or distance to the ultimate level of unity. Knowledge can be conceptual in the process of teaching or can be an experiential, direct knowledge. Just as the soul has the power to directly perceive phenomena without intermediary manifestation, it can attain the manifestation of direct reality, not just the manifestation of knowledge that is of a conceptual nature.
Knowledge has stages, and the basic mental knowledge shared by all humans, in its essential nature, does not depend on the soul’s essence. The lowest stage of mental knowledge begins with imagination. All beings, including minerals, plants, and animals, as well as humans, possess life and knowledge in the form of awareness. This awareness resides within them, and each of them performs its subtle tasks with its natural awareness. They possess life and physical awareness, though it is not the soul’s awareness, even though the soul may use them as tools. Nevertheless, their essential truth remains the same. The highest level of knowledge is perfection. Intellectual, heart, spiritual, and divine knowledge are among the highest forms of knowledge. The higher stages of knowledge depend on the nature of the soul and spirit, and anyone who is granted divine proximity will find their perceptions becoming more powerful and accurate. A sanctified soul, aided by a gift or divine guardianship, attains knowledge that is clear and aligned with reality, which is made in accordance with divine and religious principles, as discussed in the book “The Sociology of Religious Scholars.”
Conformity with Reality
Mental knowledge, if it corresponds to reality, is knowledge; otherwise, it is ignorance. Unfortunately, certainty often replaces knowledge, and certainty may be mistaken for belief, which may be fallacious and will ultimately be proven to be untrue, since it is not knowledge. Faith, belief, and conviction are mental, psychic, or spiritual attributes, while reality is the external truth. Conformity with reality is the criterion for correct knowledge. Reality, as discussed in our epistemology,
The Ontology of the Mysticism of Mahbubi
- The Divine Essence has three aspects: the essence and the indeterminate, the pervading identity (and, according to the Qur’an, the sustaining presence), and the aspect of divine effusion and creation. In each of these aspects, the Divine is truly Divine. The Divine Essence, in its effusion, descends in conjunction, and this descent brings about the divine manifestations and actions. The Divine Essence refers to that indeterminate truth, while the Divine Essence in its pervading identity and sustaining presence refers to the divine manifestations in creation, where the indeterminate becomes manifest and determined. Every particle and manifestation has its own order, allowing the permission to utilize the power and influence of the Divine Essence. While the Divine grants the permission, it can also be transformed into evil. Each higher aspect or stage has a lower one that is actualized.
- The Divine Essence, with its will and intrinsic agency, and through its love, is in a constant state of descent and ascent, experiencing both the clarity and manifestation of the divine descent and the self-manifestation and upward return. The descent is the clarity of the Divine Essence, which is manifest and is the cause of all phenomena and their manifestation, rather than any independent creation. The ascent refers to the self-manifestation of the manifestation. It is the manifestation itself that ascends. It must be noted that phenomena and determinacies are the manifestations of the Divine Essence, not its external appearances. The manifestations of the Divine Essence have no independent identity or existence.
- All of existence is the Divine Essence, which has effusions in creation and manifestations. “Presence” refers to the Divine Essence and its divine attributes, while “the world” refers to the effusion and manifestation of the Divine. Therefore, the presences are the manifestations, and the worlds are the reflections of those manifestations. The Divine Presences include: the Divine Essence in its indeterminate state, the Hidden Realm of Hidden Realms, the Determination of the One, and the Determination of the Unity of God. The fixed essences (Ayaan Thabitah) are subject to and emerge from the unity. The worlds of effusion and creation consist of five realms: the realm of Intellect (Jabarut), Souls (Malakut), the Imaginal World (Mithal), the Corporeal World (Nasut), and the world of humans, which contains all realms. Humans, in their ascension from the corporeal world and nature to the Imaginal World, the Soul (from the commanding, blaming, and inspiring soul to the inspired, peaceful, and complete soul), intellect, unity, singularity, and the indeterminate Divine Essence, have the power to ascend.
- Both the state of indeterminacy and all of the divine determinations have manifestations.
- The state of the Divine Essence has no determinations, qualifications, or conditions. It is neither conditional nor conditional in any manner. The name of the Divine Essence refers to a state without name or determination; the determination is the name itself. Therefore, no name can be attributed to it. The state of the essence does not accept a name, although God has intrinsic names that are separate from the Essence itself.
- We have said that the state of the Divine Essence neither accepts a name nor a form. However, in terms of its internal unity, which is the essence of actuality, the name “Oneness” is applied. A name means determination. Oneness marks the beginning of divine unity and the first determination, and is the collective name for all divine attributes. The divine qualities and names, which have no determination in the state of Essence, are determined in the state of Oneness. In the state of Oneness, God possesses all attributes without multiplicity. Attributes in the state of Oneness are not determined by multiplicity or degree, which does not mean that there are no attributes in this state. If that were the case, then the attributes would not be determined in the state of unity. Oneness means that God, in His essence, has no parts to share, denying internal multiplicity, composition, and partnership, thus confirming His uniqueness and incomparability.
- “Oneness” has two connotations: one refers to the essential Oneness, which is a manifestation and determination prior to the state of unity, and the second refers to the pervasive Oneness that is in every particle and realm—including the corporeal world—and signifies the unity of God’s actions, attributes, and Essence. When one witnesses the pervasive Oneness, they attain a vision of the Divine, seeing His face in all things. The pervasive Oneness is a brief experience, as opposed to someone seeking the name of God through the phenomena and names, and after passing through the keys to the unseen and the unity, they reach Oneness, which requires a long journey.
The pervasive Oneness is visible in every particle, as though God sits with each, without needing the Divine to possess Oneness after unity.
With this Oneness, whatever is seen is God, and polytheism is entirely eradicated from the individual. The pervasive Oneness can be recognized in any phenomenon, whether it is the beauty or majesty of God or even in misguidance. We have discussed the pervasive Oneness in philosophy. It should be noted that the ultimate mysticism of the lovers of God is the state of pervasive Oneness, but the initial mystics speak of the absolute essence.
- Oneness is the first manifestation, the manifestation of Essence unto Essence, where the appearance of divine names and attributes are inseparably merged. This manifestation is called “Appearance,” determination, and the manifestation of the essence. In this manifestation, the aspect of effusion is concealed.
- Oneness manifests and determines in Unity. The state of expansion and differentiation of divine names and second determinations is called Unity. Unity means that God has no partner or equal outside Himself and is unique. In the state of Unity, God possesses all the names in their multiplicity, yet these names and attributes are real and identical with the essence, not merely conceptual, necessary, negative, or non-being.
“Allah” is the name for this station, whose essence is the name “He.” The divine names are entirely the essence of God, both in Oneness and in Unity. These two stations are identical in their essence with the Divine, yet they differ in their rank.
- The station of Unity is the realm of divine names or the treasures and keys of the unseen, serving as the intermediary between the Essence of the One and the effusion of manifestation. Unity, in terms of the keys to the unseen—representing the divine names exclusive to God, which only have divine appearances but no effusion—has a specific Unity. The general Unity is the collection of all the most beautiful divine names.
The keys to the unseen, emanating from the hidden essence, work without external cause or manifestation and bring about unexpected phenomena. The keys to the unseen are identical to the essence of God, His very being and the names exclusive to Him. These names are ever-open and unsealed, enabling the manifestation of events without external causes.
- In the second manifestation, which is the manifestation of the Essence for the attributes and Unity, the fixed essences (Ayaan Thabitah) emerge, and this marks the beginning of effusion. The manifestation of names is identical to the essence of the Divine, and there is no externality or action involved, although appearance and effusion still occur. Every effusion is a manifestation, but not every manifestation is an effusion, because effusion pertains to creation. The effusion of God is eternal, necessary, primordial, eternal, and everlasting.
- The effusion of the Divine does not leave any room for potentiality. The descent of the Divine and the determination of all appearances are covered by the general state of Unity, through which phenomena connect with the keys to the unseen.
- The truths in the two determinations of Oneness and Unity are granted in a manner of giving, without acquisition or the intervention of free will, and with “supervision” by God.
- When it is said that the Divine only has one manifestation, this “one” does not refer to numerical singularity but to an encompassing application that includes all manifestations. When we speak of the multiplicity of manifestations or of one and unique manifestations, it refers to the degree of determination. The first determination is Oneness, and the second is Unity.
- Unity exists in two forms: One that has no opposite, referred to as essential unity and unity without condition, which is the very essence of God. The second, which contrasts with multiplicity, is unity beyond essence, and in one sense, unity, and in another, it accepts multiplicity.
- The Divine Essence is both One and Unique. The uniqueness means that there is no composition or connection, while Oneness signifies that God has no partner.
- Union is based on multiplicity, diversity, composition, juxtaposition, externality, and weakness. The divine names do not unify with one another.
- Knowledge and Cognition: A Philosophical and Mystical Perspective
- Knowledge and cognition represent two distinct levels of understanding. We have previously discussed the concept of knowledge within the realm of philosophy. The subject of mysticism, however, is cognition. At an introductory level of education, cognition transforms into knowledge. Cognition is superior to knowledge. The subject matter of knowledge can be either general or particular, while the subject matter of cognition pertains only to particular and individualized matters. Mysticism, as a discipline, focuses on the cognition of the Divine.
- Philosophical knowledge is a psychological phenomenon, with the soul manifesting the external world within itself. The correspondence between this internal manifestation and the external world serves as an indicator of its existence, as it is a reference point for the untouched reality outside. Acquired knowledge operates on this plane, influenced by one’s inner faculties, the purity of the heart, and the degree of effort and guidance from teachers and other external factors, as previously discussed. Doctrines related to the heart and soul are influenced by the pain, suffering, devotion, love, and affection for the Creator, which are the causes of divine proximity, and are dependent on these factors.
- Ordinary thought and common theoretical understanding derive from a heart illuminated by divine grace, which submits and obeys, gaining purity and radiance from it without engaging in it. Just as a strong intellect can bring the soul into obedience and turn the soul’s base desires into subordinate powers, so too, if the soul becomes stronger than the intellect, it weakens the reason and dominates over its decisions.
- Philosophical knowledge and thought are declarative and productive in nature, differing from mere memorization or information retention. Someone who simply reads and memorizes others’ concepts and treats them as their own is not a true scholar, but rather a mere memorizer. Memorization has no intrinsic value in understanding the truth or finding a legitimate, valid belief. A true scholar is one who has the power to affirm and demonstrates their knowledge through expression and inspiration, articulating the essence and truth of knowledge based on their personal insights.
- Cognition represents the inner presence of the truth. Therefore, cognition and truth are different. Cognition is an internal phenomenon that implies a hidden quality, while truth refers to external facts and objects of reference. Divine secrets may either belong to knowledge or to truth. The term ‘secrets’ (in plural, “asrar”) refers to those aspects of the Divine that are centred in the heart. In mysticism, when it is said that something is secret, it refers to matters of the heart, which can only be comprehended by those who have reached the station of the heart.
- Divine proximity, which plays a crucial role in the gift of cognition, is a powerful attractive field in which the heart, within a specific boundary, is protected by the mercy and grace of the Divine, preparing it to experience the Divine realities and truths. The inner flow of the heart, tranquillity, composure, calmness, and purity are signs of nearness to the Divine.
- Proximity is of two types: obligatory (fard) and voluntary (nafl). Obligatory proximity is the Divine right, binding on all creation, with God as the agent of actions through both the external and internal faculties of the servant. Voluntary proximity, on the other hand, involves the flow of creation through the Divine, where the individual plays no active role in the process but is part of God’s actions. This concept is derived from scriptural teachings and integrated into mysticism. The most effective means of achieving proximity are the obligatory duties (fara’id), and they must be given due attention. Proximity through obligatory acts leads to annihilation (fana), which is a process of dissolution and total surrender.
- The pinnacle of proximity through obligatory duties is the attainment of sanctity and infallibility, which is a divine gift dependent entirely on the will of God, His love, and affection. It follows from the path of prophethood, mission, and leadership, and represents the highest form of human perfection. The saint and the prophet are intermediaries between the Divine and the created world, with the Imam ensuring its continuation and safeguarding it with the infallible knowledge and actions they possess.
- Mysticism has two branches: practical and theoretical. From a philosophical perspective, practical mysticism is a derivative of theoretical mysticism, as the value of any action lies in the thought that informs it. Thus, both in philosophy and mysticism, the value of practical mysticism and the worth of practical philosophy depend on theoretical mysticism and theoretical philosophy. On this basis, practical mysticism by itself holds no intrinsic value; rather, it is the theoretical mysticism and its heights that lend significance and effectiveness to practical mysticism. Mysticism and the journey of the mystic are not a matter of abstract knowledge or mental concepts. Although knowledge is necessary for the mystic, knowing the path does not equate to walking it. A traveller (salik) should not assume that reading mystical texts makes them a mystic, nor should they fall into the fallacy of confusing knowledge with power. Indeed, every form of knowledge that is declarative and expressive is a form of power, yet conceptual knowledge, which is essentially “information,” is only news without any engagement with the truth.
- Mysticism does not involve theoretical navigation or purely educational content; rather, it is a practice of pain, love, and discipline. Love and cognition are not attained by simply gazing at paper or by superficial rituals; they arise from sincere dedication and conscious effort, which grants the power of submission.
- Those who seek only knowledge wish to know everything and possess every form of knowledge. Such individuals resemble spoiled children who desire everything they see. Naturally, this mindset, which fosters intense engagement with the external world, is incompatible with the mystical path.
- Someone who perceives the gate of cognition as identical to that of knowledge and approaches it with the same attitude—learning to become a master of the inner realm just as they would in acquiring knowledge—is mistaken. One may become a jurist or a theologian through study, but one cannot become a mystic through reading. Mysticism is not attained through reading alone, just as a scholar who knows the rules of poetry cannot necessarily compose a poem.
- A mystic must undergo trials, refrain from indulgence, consume lawful sustenance, and dedicate themselves to solitude and self-reflection. They must cultivate the qualities of those who possess true knowledge, trust their path, and maintain perseverance. The journey requires years of relentless effort, sometimes in apparent stagnation, but ultimately, their actions lead to realization.
- Knowledge pertains to outward appearances and concepts, while cognition concerns inner realities. Mysticism does not yield immediate results from day-to-day practices; the progress of a mystic is gradual. However, over time, the traveller may ascend multiple stages in one step. If mysticism were merely an academic discipline, the practitioner would learn things that would be ineffective in bringing them to power and truth. Instead, they must engage in sincere spiritual practices, devotion, and cultivate a pure heart, without fixating on the immediate outcomes, which are often incomprehensible to beginners. The mystic’s practice is not about achieving particular results, but about submitting to whatever God places in their path.
- Those who seek only knowledge will experience gradual, measurable outcomes in their intellectual pursuits. But the mystic must exhibit patience, for the ultimate goal is the complete dissolution of their selfishness. This process requires years of discipline and a deep internal transformation, until the final, decisive moment when the self is annihilated, much like a seed that bursts open to reveal its true nature. Mysticism is not a gradual process like knowledge; rather, it is sudden, though its preliminary stages take time to form.
- Patience and Perseverance in the Fundamentals of Mystical Practices
- Patience, forbearance, and endurance, especially in the foundational stages, are of utmost importance. The traveller (Sālik) must be attentive to the principles of the path and not disregard any of the fundamental elements, particularly patience in accompanying the master. One should never treat them superficially or consider them insignificant; nor should they become impatient in fulfilling them. Without the complete realisation of these foundational principles, which hold the nature of the root, the principles of construction, which bear the nature of the fruit, are not responsive.
- The Role of Mystical Vision in Knowledge
- One of the ways of acquiring knowledge is through mystical unveiling. Mystical unveiling is a kind of inner and unseen vision without the ordinary tools of sensory perception, intellect, insight, or genius. The object of unveiling could be events or truths. Preoccupation with the vision of events often leads to regression and misguides the seeker, leading to a type of asceticism and withdrawal from the higher spiritual truths, which are abstract and immutable. Unveiling that pertains to these truths brings the individual to fruition and realization. When the individual becomes detached from any particular truth, they attain the station of total unity.
- Anthropology in Mystical Tradition
- God is the ultimate source of being. Humans are the manifestation of the divine presence. The worlds of divine grace are realised through “humanity.” The first manifestation of God is the human soul, and subsequent manifestations are the descent of humanity. The subject of mystical knowledge is God, who is both the source and the manifestation, and the ultimate aim of mysticism is to realise God’s presence. The perfect manifestation of God is the complete human being, who is the epitome of existence. Therefore, mysticism is the study of God and the perfect human, and there is no other subject to be discussed.
- The Perfect Human as the Collective Manifestation of Divine Attributes
- The human being is the collective manifestation of the Divine. The worlds of divine grace manifest the ultimate and collective human position. A human, in their essence, is the manifestation of divine unity and, through this, attains the station of “the ultimate.” This ultimate station is the manifestation of divine unity. A human in the collective state is a manifestation of the oneness of God, and this oneness embodies the collective human state. The collective human state is the manifestation of the ultimate. Thus, the human being embodies both the divine attributes and the entirety of God’s qualities, reflecting all of His perfections. A human can experience the highest state of transcendence as well as the lowest state, surpassing even the most degraded of earthly phenomena.
- Human Beings and their Mystical Designations
- A person who lacks a special divine breath or influence is referred to as “Bashar” (human). A person with divine breath is called “Adam.” The collective state, with the capacity for descent and ascent in all worlds, can only be found in Adam, who is the one able to embody any state, even the state of non-being, while still retaining their human attributes.
- The collective and ultimate state is both the origin of the first human, Adam, and the origin of reason and knowledge, which are the emanations of the Divine. The collective state supersedes the individual, for it is the key to the hidden and the manifestation of divine unity.
- Dual Paths of Knowledge and Mysticism
- Humans have two paths of intellectual and rational knowledge: philosophical knowledge and mystical, experiential knowledge. Mystical presence is a genuine, personal, and direct realisation of God and phenomena. This realisation involves the negation of desire, through which the seeker can transcend the four general stages of intellect: the “spontaneous intellect” (basic awareness of necessity), the “active intellect” (the capacity for reasoning), the “intuitive intellect” (the ability to grasp universals), and the “sacred intellect” (the mystical faculty for understanding and union). The seeker progresses through these stages until reaching a state of non-being.
- The True Seeker of God and Their Unselfish Devotion
- The mystic does not desire anything, including God, and negates even their own attachment to the Divine. The mystic’s love for God is so profound that they do not even perceive it as love, and they have transcended the concepts of lover, beloved, and love itself. Their love is the unity of all three, and they remain silent, beholding the Divine as it truly is, without any expectation or desire.
- A true mystic is one who has attained this level of realisation without attachment, their soul illuminated by the light of God. They see nothing but God, and their contentment lies only in the Divine. The true mystic does not seek satisfaction from anything else, for everything is a manifestation of the Divine.
- The Importance of Inner Search
- The most fundamental principle of spiritual practice is for the seeker to discover their true self, understanding what innate qualities, abilities, and dispositions they possess and how they contribute to their journey towards divine unity. The seeker must come to understand their own essence, their core identity, which is referred to as the “Lord” within. This “Lord” represents the ultimate state of humanity, the destination to which all human striving leads. To realise this, one must look within, for the truth is not found outside but within. The true path requires introspection and personal discovery, for the foundation of spiritual practice lies in discovering the divine within oneself.
- The Mystical Seeker’s Journey Through Challenges
- The spiritual journey requires the seeker to transcend personal desires and self-centeredness. If the seeker becomes attached to selfish desires, their spiritual progress will be impeded, leading them further away from the Divine. The seeker must constantly practice detachment and selflessness to purify their heart. Those who let go of their selfishness are graced with the Divine’s assistance, and they may encounter trials and tribulations that ultimately purify their souls.
- The process of self-purification is central to the mystic’s path. The mystic seeks to soften the soul, avoiding harshness and excess. The practice of asceticism must be done in moderation, as too much hardship can harm the seeker and detract from their spiritual development. True asceticism leads to spiritual growth, not depression or frustration.
The Concept of Wilayah and Imamate in Islamic Mysticism and Theology
- Wilayah and Ismah (infallibility) are purely divine gifts and have no inherent ability for acquisition, although the manifestation of this infallibility can be considered as contingent and resembling the process of acquisition. The proximity and sanctity of each manifestation is determined by the purity and sanctity of its divine gift. Wilayah is a matter of gradation and hierarchy.
- Miracle (I’jaz) is not the ability to perform the impossible, but rather the acceleration and alignment of a natural process. A miracle does not disrupt the natural order; rather, it renders others powerless to perform the same act. Hence, miracles are not irrational. The miracle signifies the extraordinary nature of the one who claims prophecy.
- The identification of the possessors of Ismah is solely through the Divine will and is based on textual proof.
- Imamate is the continuation of prophethood and its preservation. Each Imam follows the religion and prophecy of their predecessor and is subordinate to it. When the prophethood of a certain prophet is concluded, the Imamate of that prophet also ceases. Belief in all the known prophets and Imams of all eras is obligatory. However, the prophetic and imamate functions are now defunct, with their practical obedience no longer applicable. In the age of occultation, the absolute obedience and authority is solely due to the Awaited Imam, Imam al-Zamana (aj), from whom the religion is derived.
- The outward titles of Wilayah hold a transcendent, timeless essence and are not confined within a temporal framework; they are fluid and appear without restriction. Claims to these titles, being superficial in nature, must be substantiated.
- The final station (Maqam Khātimī) is the ultimate manifestation of all divine names and attributes, and it is the highest, unqualified manifestation. Although it lacks independent essence, it is the most perfected manifestation of divine attributes. Thus, the highest degree of virtue belongs to the possessor of this station, whose essence is a culmination of the divine attributes.
- In the process of divine revelation, there is both an ontological manifestation (Mudhhir) and a manifestation of the revealed (Mazhar), which are intimately connected. The Mudhhir represents the divine names of God, which are intrinsic and essential to His essence. The first manifestation of unity (Ahadiyyah) reveals the first exemplification of this essence, which is the ultimate station of prophethood and Wilayah. The distinctions between the Mudhhir and Mazhar should not be conflated. Unity is a singular, indivisible quality, as is the final station of prophethood and Imamate, which will not see any new prophetic revelations after the conclusion of prophethood. This distinction must be preserved, particularly in understanding the nature of the Wilayah of Imam Ali as the ultimate and eternal.
- Imam Ali holds the position of the highest Wilayah, encompassing all prior prophets and Imams, manifesting as a unique, eternal, and complete embodiment of the Wilayah. The Imamate of the Awaited Imam, Imam al-Zamana, represents the consummation of the Wilayah of Imam Ali and is not distinct from it, but rather an extension or embodiment of the same.
- The Fourteen Infallibles (Ahl al-Bayt) are the ultimate exemplars of the proximity to the Divine. The true followers of these Infallibles, particularly those who have transcended the limits of ordinary human understanding, are not simply their devotees, but reflections of their inner truth. The presence of Lady Fatimah al-Zahra represents the highest and most hidden essence of divine purity, which does not manifest in ordinary forms like prophethood or Imamate.
- The final truth of Wilayah does not materialise abruptly in this realm (Nasūt), but gradually manifests, being rooted in eternity, unaffected by the constraints of mortality or decay. The decrees of these two stations should not be confused.
- One of the critical subjects of discussion in the context of Wilayah is the distinction between the Beloved and the Lovers (of God). In our mystical writings, we have extensively elaborated on this, offering insights that have not been previously articulated with the same precision and depth.
- During the Occultation, the lawful authority of the Faqih (jurisprudent) is established by divine mandate. The Faqihs who meet the required conditions are appointed as a collective body and have equal standing, with none possessing superiority over another. Following an unqualified Faqih is tantamount to disobedience, as we have elaborated in our work “The Law of Wilayah.”
- Wilāyat encompasses a vast array of sub-disciplines, such as the divine names, divination, interpretation, and esoteric sciences, some of which we will address in the third volume of this text.
Reconsidering the Sources of the Love-Based Mysticism
For years, we have strived to introduce a school of Divine Infallibility-based Mysticism in our spiritual lessons. On this basis, we have critically analysed the texts of the “Manāzil al-Sā’irīn” in practical mysticism and works typically studied in theoretical mysticism—namely, the ninth and tenth paths of al-Ishārāt wa al-Tanbīhāt, “al-Tamhīd al-Qawā’id”, “Sharḥ Fusūs al-Hikam”, and “Misbāh al-Ans”—examining and critiquing the content of each, in alignment with the culture of the Ahl al-Bayt. We have analysed each statement, providing critique on any inaccuracy or discrepancies, elaborating on the authentic teachings of the Shi’a and correcting any scholarly, mystical, or theological shortcomings. I have been teaching these texts in the Qom Seminary for over forty years.
“Manāzil al-Sā’irīn” and its Significance
“Manāzil al-Sā’irīn” and the commentary by Kāshānī are key texts in the mystical journey of the lovers. The author, Khāwaja ‘Abdullāh al-Anṣārī (d. 396 AH), a prominent mystic of the 4th century, lays out the spiritual journey in his work. The Manāzil al-Sā’irīn is a detailed description of the stages of the mystical path. While it is a brilliant theoretical work, it is deeply rooted in the mysticism of the lovers and is concerned with the practical process of spiritual ascent.
The text divides the journey into ten sections, each containing ten stations, resulting in a total of one hundred spiritual stages. These stages of mysticism are comprehensive and correspond to ethical and spiritual developments in the seeker’s path.
These practical exercises and spiritual disciplines are carried out under the guidance of an experienced master who provides both insight and action, steering the disciple away from mere intellectualisation. A seeker benefits from such grace only if their soul is capable of accepting the master’s teachings, with a receptive mind and a purified heart. Otherwise, the seeker—if their soul is tainted with malice—will only appreciate their own findings, considering themselves the epitome of wisdom and understanding, even offering proof of their righteousness to the saints of God. Such a soul is hard, cruel, and dead. A living soul, however, is attentive to its own end, pursuing the path of health and happiness, and steering clear of pitfalls and what leads to misery, guided by knowledge, awareness, and the divine grace granted by God.
A seeker must possess dynamic and creative thinking, the power of knowledge, and wisdom, with their primary merit being the ability to exercise independent reasoning and understanding of life’s challenges. The seeker must possess the faculty of deduction to avoid falling into mere popular belief, superficial practices, or blind obedience. Naturally, only those who have knowledge, wisdom, and a living soul can possess such abilities.
The vitality of the soul and its dynamism are marked by two important signs: firstly, the ability to listen—to hear and critically consider the opinions, criticisms, and objections of others, and to analyse them; in other words, to seek to learn from others and discover their own weaknesses in their words. Secondly, each day, a new thought and insight should bloom in the soul, with the individual possessing the ability to critique and innovate, constantly enriching their inner life with fresh discoveries; otherwise, without these two attributes, the soul is sick and dead. This means that among scholars, only those who continuously develop and grow their thoughts on the path of life can truly be said to have vitality, offering new insights and perspectives every day.
A seeker must not only be master-centered in their path, but also remain focused solely on the Divine throughout their journey. They must not be distracted by anything, even if it appears to be spiritual or pure, as demons can disguise themselves as serene, alluring figures to mislead the seeker. Sometimes even angels, in their love for the seeker, may present themselves. One must desire nothing but God, follow the path of Truth, and understand that everything is for the sake of the Divine.
Additionally, it is crucial that the seeker does not act out of habit or unconsciousness. Actions performed without intention, as if out of instinct, have no value on the spiritual path and are like weeds. A seeker who sleeps and wakes without conscious intention, or cannot fall asleep, will find no spiritual benefit in their rest. A true seeker must possess the will to love and the will to reject, not merely be passively attracted to or repelled by something. If a seeker wills to love, no force can prevent them from doing so, for they are powerful in their resolve. Such a person is not afraid of prisons or chains because they have chosen their path through free will. They love their beloved, even if the entire world speaks ill of them. No one can change or alter such a person.
One of the most important first steps on the path is “the healing of what is lawful.” Consuming what is unlawful is the worst affliction for spiritual matters.
Additionally, the seeker must be willing to endure the demands of their beloved at any cost, or else their heart will not be purified, and their growth and ascent will be halted.
Adhering to these principles brings lightness and speed to the journey. A seeker who gains momentum must have a guide to regulate their pace, or else their rapid ascent may lead to the destruction of their inner self and a fall.
Regulating the ascents and descents in spiritual practice is of utmost importance. Those who have reached great heights are not subject to the weight of the corporeal world, but controlling their speed becomes difficult. In such a state, the soul of the seeker becomes surrounded by the spirits of the world and the phenomena of the Divine realm, which may drain their strength, so that they no longer wish to descend, just as an astronaut feels weightless beyond Earth’s atmosphere. If a seeker finds themselves in this state without a seasoned guide, they may face difficulties in their lower self and become lost in their journey. They will experience a spiritual death or confusion unless they can return to the grounded teachings.
Among the books on mysticism, “The Mysticism of the Beloved and the Seekers of the Beloved” provides an understanding of this journey. In the path of a lover, it is impossible to design a single path with specific stages for all individuals to reach God. Each soul has a unique path and speed, sometimes slow, sometimes with leaps. These differences are both personal and categorical. Thus, the book focuses on the general characteristics of these seekers rather than individual paths, in contrast to the more structured path described in other mystical traditions.
Spiritual Mysticism
In my book Spiritual Mysticism, I elaborate on the fundamentals of spiritual pathfinding in Shia mysticism. For the first time in Shia philosophy, I have outlined the “Practical Mysticism” system based on the teachings of the Infallible Household, explaining the principles and rules that guide the seeker from the material world to the realm of the unseen.
The journey to the unseen has three stages: first, adherence to the Shariah (religious law), second, following the Sufi path (Tariqat), and third, attaining the Truth (Haqiqat). These stages are known as the beginner’s, intermediate, and advanced stages, corresponding to action, state, and realization.
Practical Mysticism aims to guide the seeker from external religious actions to inner transformation, following the specific path laid out by the Shia school of thought. This journey in Shia mysticism has a defined structure, although human curiosity has led to many diverging paths that, when disconnected from the teachings of the Infallible Household, can lack authenticity.
Mysticism is the study of the luminous essence of the self. What is said about humans, calling them “the speaking animal,” refers to their material aspect, but humans also possess a luminous nature that connects them to the higher realms. Mysticism guides the seeker to embrace this spiritual essence and return to their divine origin. The first phase of this three-stage system is outlined in Spiritual Mysticism, with sixty-eight principles of Shia practical mysticism. The deeper discussions on the sovereignty of the saints and on the unity of the Divine are elaborated in my other works, especially in my commentary on Ibn Arabi’s Fusus al-Hikam.
Mysticism is intimately connected to the “heart” of the individual, and those with mystical potential carry the pains of opening their hearts. Spiritual Mysticism serves as an introduction to the Red Journey and prepares the reader to approach the subtleties discussed in the next volumes of my work.
In the book, I explain that the path to spiritual realization is not an academic pursuit but a divine gift. A seeker must possess the inner potential to follow this path, and any attempt without such innate potential will be fruitless. True mysticism is not learned through books but through direct, inner transformation guided by an adept teacher. The seeker must first realize their own inner potential and then, under the guidance of a master, develop their spiritual faculties through discipline and meditation.
The seeker’s journey is about discovering and refining their inner essence, not acquiring external knowledge. Mysticism is a deep, internal process that transcends intellectual understanding. Through a combination of inner aptitude and external guidance, the seeker moves towards uncovering the divine truths hidden within.
He is considered the embodiment of beauty, perfection, and the manifestation of love, representing spiritual degrees.
The Sheikh reminds us of the secrets of the friends of God under three categories:
a. Fasting for an extended period, which reveals certain fundamental principles.
b. Extraordinary acts beyond the usual, such as traversing the earth, which exemplifies the mastery of the mystic.
c. Prophecy or knowledge of the unseen, which demonstrates the mystic’s vision to others. To prove the possibility of such knowledge, he offers a long discussion across sixteen chapters (indications and reminders).
At the end of the book, the Sheikh gives two important pieces of advice: First, that a wise person should neither deny everything nor easily accept everything without evidence. Those who accept or reject things without careful consideration or proper reasoning lack intellectual value, and such reactions stem from their weakness and incapacity. The Sheikh advises that one should regard anything as possible and refrain from denial until one arrives at proof; however, one is not required to accept it. This is a principle that anyone, be they a philosopher or someone delving into intellectual or rational matters, should follow: not to hastily accept or dismiss statements without adequate evidence.
The Sheikh’s statements in his “Indications” (Isharat) are brief, especially regarding the details of the mystic’s stations and conditions. These can be seen as general guidelines and an introduction to mysticism. Therefore, they do not have practical applicability and do not assist the spiritual aspirant in recognizing their own stage or condition. They are rather scattered pieces of advice meant for moral reflection, akin to the character of theological ethical books.
Explanation of Fusus al-Hikam
The great Sheikh Muhyiddin Ibn Arabi (d. 638 AH) is the author of two significant mystical works, Fusus al-Hikam and Al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya. I regard him as one of the most prominent mystics, whose writings are rooted in the theological beliefs of the Sunni tradition.
He is one of the strongest figures in the mystical path of love and is a leader in this tradition, having approached mysticism with a foundation in Sunni theological beliefs. Here, I will focus only on his book Fusus al-Hikam. It is worth mentioning that I have taught the explanation of Fusus al-Hikam in two periods in Qom. The second course was recorded, and the sessions accumulated to 1,151 lectures. My explanation in Persian is the most comprehensive commentary on this book to date.
The explanation of Fusus al-Hikam is titled Matalib al-Husayn fi Ma’ani Fusus al-Hikam by Dawud Qaysari (d. 751 AH), who was a student of Abd al-Razzaq Kashani. Although Qaysari’s explanation is an essential and systematic commentary on Fusus al-Hikam, there are many instances where Qaysari struggles to understand Ibn Arabi’s subtle allusions, failing to grasp the intent of Ibn Arabi’s words and interpretations. He often repeats Ibn Arabi’s statements without independent insight, even when Ibn Arabi might have made significant errors. Furthermore, at times, he distorts the meanings of the text. Qaysari relies heavily on the oral teachings of mysticism rather than direct mystical experience, making his commentary valuable but somewhat limited in experiential depth.
In his introduction, Qaysari praises Ibn Arabi, giving him the title Khatam al-Wilayat al-Nubuwwiya (the Seal of Prophetic Saints). He accepts Ibn Arabi’s claim regarding his own position. However, we reserve this title exclusively for Amir al-Mu’minin (Ali). In his introduction, Qaysari outlines the foundational principles of Ibn Arabi’s mysticism, including concepts such as existence, unity, divine names and attributes, the fixed essences, intellects, the world of imagination, and the stages of descent, which provides a basis for understanding Ibn Arabi’s mystical teachings.
In my own commentary on Fusus al-Hikam, I have sought to critically reassess and correct the existing mystical culture by revisiting, correcting, and refining the teachings. If I had not undertaken this task, I would not have regarded this commentary as a text for academic study. My goal has been to ensure that this text is refined in such a way that even Ibn Arabi himself and his commentators would be pleased with it. During the time of Ibn Arabi, when knowledge was scarce and difficult to obtain — and perhaps under the pressure of political oppression — they presented this text, just as we have painstakingly explained it.
I chose to teach and explain this book because it provides a succinct yet comprehensive approach to mysticism, which is rare in our intellectual tradition. For example, the works of the late Sayyid Haydar Amoli, though deeply rooted in the concept of Wilayah and Shi’ism, also suffer from fundamental issues. Only a sharp intellect and a pure heart could fill this gap, which is what I sought to achieve through this commentary.
The idea I aim to convey through this commentary is that Shi’i mysticism, in its focus on the Wilayah and the essence of the Ahl al-Bayt (the family of the Prophet), is so rich that it does not need books like Fusus al-Hikam and Qaysari’s commentary. I hope that through this effort, I will be able to compile a comprehensive text on mysticism based on this commentary, which can serve as an academic textbook that replaces books like Fusus al-Hikam.
My approach in this commentary involves not only correcting the mysticism of Fusus al-Hikam but also incorporating the Shi’i tradition of mysticism. Additionally, I have revisited the theological, philosophical, and historical elements that Ibn Arabi uses in Fusus al-Hikam, replacing them with a more accurate mystical framework. At the same time, I have highlighted the profound and accurate statements Ibn Arabi makes, which show that this book is not only academically valuable but also spiritually powerful.
Fusus al-Hikam is one of Ibn Arabi’s finest works and surpasses his Futuhat al-Makkiyya. It contains the foundational principles of Ibn Arabi’s mystical philosophy, just as Al-Asfar al-Arba’a is the most important text for the philosophy of Mulla Sadra. Ibn Arabi, with his deeply experiential mystical insight, has succeeded in conveying the profound experiences and meanings he encountered, giving these ideas form through language.
Among human texts, Maqamat al-Sairin is the finest work in practical mysticism, and Fusus al-Hikam is one of the best theoretical mysticism texts. This work, written through Ibn Arabi’s visionary experiences, is a technical text. He has taken mysticism beyond its previous limitations and provided a comprehensive framework, demonstrating the expansiveness of his intellect and heart in the mystical domain. Through this work, Ibn Arabi became a central figure in mysticism, and his teachings have shaped the practices of later mystics, who have largely followed his path.
The intellectual authority of Ibn Arabi is not immune to flaws. He was led to certain unwarranted claims and an overreliance on his own views, which led to various distortions in Fusus al-Hikam. However, despite these flaws, the grandeur of the spiritual path that Ibn Arabi charted cannot be diminished. Our objective is to provide a scientific analysis and critique of his writings, not to judge his spiritual proximity to God.
Ibn Arabi claims a form of spiritual inheritance. While he may not be superior to many scholars in terms of moral and spiritual excellence, he is at least their equal. He possesses universal Wilayah and love for the Ahl al-Bayt, but his understanding of specific, esoteric Wilayah (related to the ascent to the unique station of Amir al-Mu’minin) does not align with Shi’i beliefs. Thus, his teachings on Wilayah may not be entirely correct, especially when it comes to identifying the true representatives of God’s authority. However, it cannot be claimed that his love for the Ahl al-Bayt is absent. He speaks of the spiritual station of Wilayah and guidance, but his perceptions and doctrinal conclusions, especially concerning the esoteric dimension of Wilayah, differ from the Shi’i perspective.
Some commentators have attributed to Ibn Arabi the title Khatam al-Wilayah al-Kulliya (the Seal of Universal Wilayah), but we reserve this title for Amir al-Mu’minin, as he occupies the highest spiritual station. Ibn Arabi is not at that level, and in my own commentary, I have aimed to clarify these mystical truths, avoiding judgment over his spiritual position, as such decisions lie with God.
In his discussions of nature, especially the theory of celestial spheres, Ibn Arabi draws heavily on ancient ideas and the Ptolemaic geocentric cosmology, which has since been rendered scientifically obsolete and archived. Such discussions are now considered superfluous and belong purely to the history of science. There should be an effort to revise and critically edit his text to eliminate such outdated concepts. Even in his analysis and justification of concepts like the Throne (Arsh) and the Footstool (Kursi), he resorts to these archaic embellishments. He also explains concepts such as the Supreme Spirit, the First Intellect, the Tablet, the Pen, the Lower World (Dahr Asfal), the Higher World (Dahr A’la), and the concept of Eternity (Dahr) in some cases with fabricated claims. His view of the impossible as a divine truth reveals the weaknesses in his philosophical and epistemological theories.
Ibn Arabi posits the existence of a universal soul that, through its collective power, encompasses all individual souls, imaginations, and representations. He considers this universal soul to be the highest, simplest, and the first form in relation to the permanent entities (A’yan Thabitah). However, we find no evidence to support the notion of a universal soul, universal imagination, or the faculty associated with them, and we deem these ideas baseless and unfounded.
In the arrangement and structure of the chapters in his “Fusus al-Hikam,” Ibn Arabi does not adopt a systematic or scholarly approach. The sequence of the chapters appears disorganized, inappropriate, and imbalanced. For example, he places the chapter on Jesus (Isa) too early and the chapter on Moses (Musa) after that on Harun (Aaron), despite Harun being the brother and successor of Musa. The positioning of Harun’s chapter without explaining the life and significance of Musa makes little sense. Moreover, the chapter on Musa addresses worldly and social issues, while the chapter on Isa focuses on spiritual matters, divine mercy, and miraculous care. In the natural order and the prophecy of the messengers, Isa came after Musa.
Since Ibn Arabi has a theological orientation rooted in the beliefs of Sunni Islam, his mystical thoughts do not reflect a robust philosophical grounding. He accepts the concept of essence and applies it to the theory of permanent entities, utilizing the concepts of substances and accidents in his natural philosophy. In discussions of free will and volition, he reiterates the deterministic views of the Sunni tradition and struggles to justify human agency, which he sees as a divine action within the self. His perspective renders the mystic’s endeavor futile and inactive. We assert that the one who possesses the station of knowledge and determination performs the best actions and grows in efficacy. The idea that everything is a manifestation of divine truth does not contradict the system of causality, human free will, obligation, and punishment, and these concepts should be preserved in these discussions. He speculates, somewhat arbitrarily and intuitively, that one can reach a level where religious duties no longer apply.
Ibn Arabi, disregarding the Quranic verses, asserts that Idris and Ilyas are the same person, united in a reincarnation-like state. While it is true that some mystics’ views resemble the theory of reincarnation, their statements differ significantly. Ibn Arabi’s claim in this regard lacks proper justification and aligns with the erroneous doctrine of reincarnation. Like the Persian mystic Suhrawardi, he also conflates figures such as Idris and Hermes, the Greek philosopher, without considering the temporal context. Philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, though great in intellect and divine in nature, do not provide any evidence that they were prophets. The philosophical system should not be mixed with that of the divine prophets.
In light of all the scientific challenges within Ibn Arabi’s works, it is no longer appropriate for Shiite mysticism to rely on these teachings without a distinct, independent mystical text of its own.
Commentary on the “Misbah al-Ans”:
In theoretical mysticism, the three main textbooks are “Tamhid al-Qawa’id,” “Sharh Fusus al-Hikam,” and “Misbah al-Ans,” which serves as a curriculum text. “Tamhid” is an introductory and purely conceptual work, discussing two primary issues: the divine and the perfect human. “Fusus al-Hikam” addresses numerous, though disorganized, topics, whereas “Misbah al-Ans” is a logical and harmonious book. It must be said that the most important and highest-level book taught in theoretical mysticism is “Misbah al-Ans.”
The main author of the text, “Miftah al-Ghayb” (The Key to the Unseen), is the esteemed Sadr al-Din Qunawi (607-671 or 673 AH), a disciple of Ibn Arabi and one of his most distinguished followers. After Ibn Arabi, Qunawi was a prominent figure in mysticism, dedicated to explaining, clarifying, and correcting his teacher’s teachings. Qunawi, who was rightly regarded as the heir to Ibn Arabi’s mystical legacy, systematized and expanded his teacher’s teachings in works like “Miftah al-Ghayb,” while also correcting certain errors found in Ibn Arabi’s writings. Within the mystical tradition, Ibn Arabi is known as “Sheikh al-Akbar” (The Greatest Master), while Qunawi is referred to simply as “Sheikh.”
“Miftah al-Ghayb” is largely a repetition of the ideas found in “Fusus al-Hikam” and “Futuhat al-Makkiyyah.” A careful study of this book frees the reader from the need to consult many other mystical works, as it encompasses the most comprehensive mystical discussions. However, “Miftah al-Ghayb,” like “Fusus al-Hikam,” adheres to the Sunni tradition and has not surpassed Ibn Arabi’s affectionate, devotional mysticism. Through the commentary on “Misbah al-Ans,” we seek to reframe mysticism based on the Shiite tradition of Wilayah (spiritual authority), and create a work that does not conflict with the teachings of the Ahl al-Bayt, offering unembellished scientific and mystical truths.
If we view “Fusus al-Hikam” and “Futuhat al-Makkiyyah” as an ocean of knowledge, albeit with embellishments, a scholar like Qunawi strives to edit and refine Ibn Arabi’s mysticism and correct many of his mistakes. His work, as much as his ability allows, clarifies the mistakes of the “Great Sheikh” and brings coherence and accuracy to the teachings.
Both Ibn Arabi and Qunawi are undoubtedly great mystics, with Qunawi being so influential in mysticism that his legacy shines as brightly as Ibn Arabi’s. However, Qunawi’s writings are more precise and methodical than those of Ibn Arabi. Even though Ibn Arabi may have advanced further on the path of knowledge, Qunawi’s approach to mystical writings is more refined and scientifically rigorous. Qunawi’s contributions, while drawing heavily from Ibn Arabi’s teachings, also exhibit significant independence and depth in his own right.
In any case, the main subject of my poetry is the narrative of “pure and collective love”; a love that is devoid of any desire. The negation of desire and the attainment of pure love is the path of beloved mystics; a path that is very short and swift, travelled by the power of love and affection. This is a love that one can reach, and for which a clear path can be found.
Previously, I mentioned that four volumes of “The Complete Works of Nekou’s Diwan” represent a reception and critique of the content of the ghazals in the Diwan of Khwaja Hafiz Shirazi, through the language of poetry and ghazal. This reception is termed “Safi Critique.” In fact, the Safi Critique elaborates on the mysticism of beloved lovers, the subtleties and intricacies of nearness to the Beloved, the red path of mystics, and the differences between the path of lovers and the path of passionate seekers, all conveyed in the language of poetry and the reception of Khwaja’s ghazals. Khwaja Hafiz, as a lover of symbolic nature, has his heart’s eye illuminated by the light of awakening. Hafiz possesses a profound rhetorical influence and a universal acceptance, such that all the people of Iran, and indeed, those knowledgeable of the Persian language worldwide, hold him in high regard.
Hafiz’s mysticism and ontology are grounded on two fundamental pillars: “love” and “intoxication or asceticism.” These thoughts have their roots in the teachings and mysticism of Ibn Arabi, and many of Ibn Arabi’s mystical propositions are reflected in Hafiz’s Diwan.
Hafiz’s mysticism is that of a lover; however, in critique and reception, a mystical, immaculate, and Shi’a beloved mysticism is presented. The “Safi Critique” aims to identify the epistemic flaws in the beloved mysticism system of Khwaja Hafiz and, through the language of poetry, to critique and correct it. The ghazals in the “Safi Critique” are among the finest sources for understanding the qualities and attributes of the beloved and lover of the Divine, as they depict the subtle details of the beloved’s path and critique the lovers.
In his Diwan, Khwaja Hafiz speaks of many topics related to the origin and end of creation, the place of man in the cosmic order, and matters like determinism and free will, the secret of fate, love, reason, knowledge, asceticism, and the condemnation of worldly life, all of which, based on the teachings of Ibn Arabi, require refinement. A sample of this reception is as follows:
“I have said many times and I say again,
That I am the one lost in this path, and I do not ask of myself.
Behind the mirror, the parrot-like form has been held for me,
I say what the eternal master said.”
Here, Hafiz alludes to the preordained destiny of the parrot-like lover, acknowledging that his happiness and sorrow are predetermined and, in general, beyond human will. He accepts this with eagerness, submitting to the will of the Divine, acknowledging that he is bound by fate and does not recognize the law of attraction in love, seeing it instead as a matter of divine decree.
The lover experiences tangible sensations of the wine of awakening and enlightenment (“yaqza”), which lead him to disregard the doubters and dismiss the adornments of the aged ones as mere decoration. However, in his steadfastness, he does not transcend the creatures and phenomena around him but remains confined by them. In response to this passionate ghazal of Khwaja Hafiz, I have written:
“My beloved has said and I too say much,
Whatever the beloved does, I seek only that.
It is not my destiny, but I accept this point:
What my beloved has whispered into my heart, that is what I seek.”
This reception declares that the lover is granted a shared, volitional system of causality and choice, yet in the domain of divine will, the beloved is drawn by the lover’s affection, and divine beauty and majesty are inseparable in his perception. Thus, the lover with divine love within him pursues the divine will, not by his own volition. All appearances bear preconditions, not complete causality in the manifestation of their forms. Therefore, their good or evil circumstances can change under the system of collective and shared existence, and humanity is endowed with the ability to choose and the capacity for rational judgment.
The beloved’s gaze is a divine gaze upon every occurrence, and the Divine is at the core of his being. The beloved perceives the face of the Divine in every moment, and God, in turn, reveals Himself through the essence of the beloved. The beloved, for such a vision, possesses the capacity for profound effort, and in a state of intoxication, he eagerly embraces suffering, for the beloved does not encounter the Divine except through sacrifice.
The “Complete Works of Nekou” has, to date, been compiled into twenty-nine volumes, which are listed as follows:
| Title | Number of Verses | Form |
|---|---|---|
| The Best Ghazal | 3303 | Ghazal |
| Pure Dance | 3857 | Ghazal |
| The Gracious State | 3533 | Ghazal |
| The Hour of Heavenly Companionship | 3584 | Ghazal |
| The Bride of the Heart | 4174 | Ghazal |
| Diwan of Love and Knowledge Vol. 1 | 2832 | Ghazal |
| Diwan of Love and Knowledge Vol. 2 | 2178 | Ghazal |
| Diwan of Love and Knowledge Vol. 3 | 2869 | Ghazal |
| Diwan of Love and Knowledge Vol. 4 | 2715 | Ghazal |
| Safi Critique Vol. 1 | 1608 | Ghazal |
| Safi Critique Vol. 2 | 1770 | Ghazal |
| Safi Critique Vol. 3 | 1655 | Ghazal |
| Safi Critique Vol. 4 | 1668 | Ghazal |
| Iranian Night Vol. 1 | 6725 | Ghazal |
| Iranian Night Vol. 2 | 7274 | Ghazal |
| Iranian Night Vol. 3 | 2590 | Rubaiyat and Doubaiti |
| Trial and Rulership Vol. 1 | 2213 | Miscellaneous |
| Trial and Rulership Vol. 2 | 4181 | Miscellaneous |
| Beloved’s Glories | 4384 | Ghazal |
| Woman: The Goddess of Love | 3547 | Miscellaneous |
| Divine Passion | 3834 | Miscellaneous |
| Heartfelt Suffering | 3267 | Qasida |
| Secrets and Delights | 7878 | Mathnawi |
| Nearness of the Beloved | 1954 | Doubaiti |
| The Most Passionate | 3914 | Doubaiti |
| Blood of the Heart | 1148 | Rubaiyat and Doubaiti |
| Kindness and Elegance | 1642 | Rubaiyat and Doubaiti |
| The Captivation of Zuleikha | 800 | Doubaiti, Rubaiyat |
| The Creator of Beauty | 3800 | Ghazals |
The categories of our studies are cyclical: one cycle is the cycle of concept to concept, another is the cycle of example to example. This process, where concepts are not merely theoretical but grounded in tangible instances, is fundamental in our academic exploration of mystical poetry and logic.
