Five Philosophical Essays

Five Philosophical Essays
Shenasnameh (Bibliographic Record)

Author: Mohammad-Reza Nokonam (b. 1327 H.S.)
Title: Five Philosophical Essays / Mohammad-Reza Nokonam
Publisher: Islamshahr: Sobhe Farda Publications, 2014.
Physical Description: 72 pages; 9 × 19.5 cm
ISBN: 978-600-7347-66-9
Previous Edition: Qom: Zohur-e Shafaq, 2007.
Edition: Second edition.
Note: The bibliography is provided as footnotes.
Subject:

• Freedom – Religious Aspects – Islam
• The Path and Way of Life (Islam)
• Happiness – Religious Aspects – Islam
• Good and Evil (Islam)
  Library of Congress Classification: BP230/14 / N8P9 2014
  Dewey Decimal Classification: 297.483
  National Bibliography Number: 3674319

Preface

Praise be to Allah, the Lord of the Worlds, and peace and blessings be upon Muhammad and his pure family, and everlasting curse upon their enemies.

The present work is a philosophical reflection and rational inquiry into the meanings of the terms “freedom,” “independence,” “victory,” “defeat,” “good,” and “evil.”

How does one achieve freedom and independence? What do victory, defeat, salvation, and misfortune truly signify? Is evil an existent entity or merely a negation?

The first three essays in this work address such questions, while the fourth essay introduces the characteristics of the philosophical system of Hakim Sabzevari and analyses and critiques the introduction to his work.

The fifth essay examines the difference between the eternal and primordial fixed entities, or ‘Ayaan Thabitah of the mystics, and the concept of “Haal” (states) and the intermediary view of the Mu’tazilites, offering criticisms of the mystics’ interpretation of the eternal forms.

And the final word of praise is to Allah, the Lord of the Worlds.

Freedom and Independence

If one ponders and reflects on the history of humankind, the question arises: why has human history been so embroiled in fragmentation, differences, religions, sects, and various ideologies?

Why must there be such a proliferation of races, nations, traditions, schools, and belief systems among humans? Was there more than one human being to cause such disunity and diversity?

It can be argued that the multitude of beliefs, ideologies, and religions is a natural outcome of the dynamism of human thought and the necessity for human development and growth, as human beings possess the freedom and autonomy to think and evolve. The expansion and dynamism of the human mind contribute to this variety, and in relation to the essence of humanity, such diversity is natural.

However, while this argument seems plausible and to some extent reflects the nature of human thought and the exigencies of different historical epochs, the issue that demands more scrutiny is that not all such ideological and religious differences are of this nature. In fact, the proliferation of doctrines and ideologies has reached such an extent that the distinction between truth and falsehood, good and bad, has become blurred, leaving little room for the articulation of truth and reality.

Intellectual Pillaging

What does humanity think, and how does it think, that it becomes entangled in so many contradictions and confusion?

The mind of humanity has become so filled with dissonance and contradiction that it has come to doubt its own thoughts, viewing them with suspicion and distrust. It increasingly contemplates whether the deceptive minds of the corrupt have led humanity into their misguided creations, to the point where they prey upon the naive, presenting falsehoods as truths and blurring the lines between right and wrong.

Confusion, conflict, and divergence have become so entrenched that human beings have lost clarity in their intellectual pursuits, leading them to disbelieve in their own potential for intellectual growth. Intellectual plundering and the moral degradation of humanity have weakened the capacity for genuine thought, leaving human beings in a state of disillusionment, without hope for true self-realisation.

Why does humanity fail to recognise the truth when confronted with it? Why do some people worship the cow, while others fail to acknowledge the true nature of divinity? Why do some exalt individuals such as Ali (a.s.) as divine, while others reject his position as Imam? Why, then, does history show such contradictory interpretations?

The Path to Salvation

In order to rescue humanity and create a better world, it is essential to educate and elevate the intellectual capacity of the masses. Only by cultivating thoughtful awareness and critical reasoning can individuals evaluate and pursue every idea and ideal with greater discernment, avoiding the reckless pursuit of misguided notions.

Freedom and independence are consequences of a broad and open mind, and these qualities are ultimately linked to intellectual awareness. Without the enlightenment of the people, freedom and independence remain unattainable. Thus, both freedom and independence are contingent upon awareness, and these, in turn, create the conditions for a better and more just society.

Victory and Defeat

Humanity’s complex nature, with its varied motivations, desires, and contradictions, often leads individuals to experience both victory and defeat. In moments of success, people feel victorious, while in moments of failure, they feel defeated. The real question, however, is: what do these terms—victory and defeat—actually mean?

What is the nature of victory, and who is truly victorious? What does it mean to experience defeat, and what criteria should one use to evaluate success or failure?

The key lies in understanding these terms not merely as abstract concepts but in terms of their concrete application in the world, for victory and defeat are defined by the context in which they arise. People may often pursue victory without fully understanding what they are striving for, and this lack of clarity leads them to misinterpret success and failure.

Conclusion

Human beings must reorient their understanding of success, happiness, and the path to true fulfilment. Victory cannot be measured by external or fleeting accomplishments but must be rooted in the pursuit of authentic, long-term goals that promote true well-being and wisdom. Without awareness and self-reflection, individuals and societies will remain trapped in cycles of misunderstanding, deceit, and unfulfilled desires.

Ultimately, true happiness and victory are found in the pursuit of enlightenment and wisdom, leading to a deeper understanding of oneself and the world, which will guide humanity toward lasting peace and freedom.

Victory and Defeat from the Perspective of the Holy Qur’an

Victory in attaining eternal happiness and defeat is the eternal deprivation; as stated in the most complete and divine book: “So whoever is removed from the Fire and admitted to Paradise has attained victory” (3:185), “Whoever obeys Allah and His Messenger has certainly attained a great success” (33:71), “Allah is pleased with them and they are pleased with Him; that is the great success” (5:119).

Anyone who is kept away from eternal deprivation and succeeds in the eternal realm is truly prosperous. The person who escapes the eternal fire and enters Paradise has achieved salvation. Whoever obeys Allah and the Messenger is prosperous and has attained the great success. The great success lies in the pleasure of Allah and in avoiding disobedience and rebellion. “The companions of Paradise are the successful ones” (59:20); the people of Paradise are the true victors.

Therefore, the Qur’an considers the ultimate and eternal condition of a person as the criterion for happiness, misfortune, victory, and defeat. All fleeting moments and worldly powers, if they have an eternal aspect, represent success and happiness; otherwise, they are nothing but deprivation and defeat.

History has witnessed many powerful rulers and world-dominating leaders, whose names have disappeared today. Though each of them continues to experience the deprivation of their current state in the Barzakh of their existence, the righteous servants and divine saints, despite enduring numerous difficulties in their earthly lives, are now beyond them, and all these individuals now enjoy the presence of Allah in the kingdom of their souls with joy.

The Principles of “Passing” and “Remaining”

Human beings experience different phases in their worldly lives. At times, they are joyous, while at other times, they are sorrowful. They might be trapped at one point or free and stable at another.

Sometimes, suffering pervades a person’s entire being, and the world feels so constricting that there seems to be no escape, forcing the person to endure hardships. At other times, they are immersed in joy, victory, and dominion, proclaiming that “the whole kingdom is mine.” There are moments when a person becomes weary of their remaining life, and at other times, they long for a longer life. Sometimes, they complain of loneliness, and at other times, they grow tired of people and crowds.

All these moments, and countless other times, are part of a transient reality that never remains constant. It is evident that nothing stays the same. The passage of time, with all its ups and downs, the victories and defeats, are inevitable events that all humans accept, even if they are not fully aware of them. However, they are not overly concerned with this inevitability because they are not fully aware of its actual occurrence.

What remains after all these fleeting moments—these trials, victories, joys, and sorrows—is the eternal outcome that determines a person’s destiny, happiness, misfortune, victory, or defeat.

Thus, from all of human life, one can derive two essential principles: the principle of passing and the principle of remaining. The remaining state of a person can either be a face of happiness, misfortune, victory, salvation, or defeat and ruin, which follows the principle of passing.

One must understand that the principle of “passing” is a transient aspect, whereas the principle of “remaining” represents the true identity of a person that is never lost. A person will ultimately see their eternal existence reflected in their face of victory or defeat.

This is where an individual must understand themselves, recognize their existential position, and avoid letting the temporary nature of “passing” cloud their eternal identity. They must align their actions and efforts with the principle of eternity, enduring the hardships of the “passing” phase with patience, endurance, and divine assistance, never allowing the principle of “remaining” to be jeopardized. This requires faith, knowledge, and profound patience, demanding clarity and sincerity.

What is crucial at this stage is the complete belief and conviction in the truth of these two principles. Merely speaking about them, knowing them, or murmuring them is not sufficient. Human confusion, rebellion, deviation, and misguidance arise from ignorance or a lack of belief in these two principles.

When a person focuses solely on the passing nature of worldly victory and defeat, making these the benchmarks of success, and fails to acknowledge the eternal consequences, they are oblivious to the true purpose of life. They may consider their worldly struggles as their only problems, but they neglect their eternal plight, as if they do not grasp the magnitude of this issue.

Efforts must be made to understand and believe in these two principles, and to make society aware of them. By doing so, many of humanity’s misfortunes will be alleviated, and people will recognize the path of righteousness and success, distinguishing it from corruption and deviation.

It is the responsibility of the righteous members of society, enlightened scholars, and wise individuals to guide humanity towards the right path, ensuring that people do not jeopardize their eternal happiness for the sake of transient worldly affairs.

May the light of knowledge and the power of faith open the way for individuals to internalize these principles in their hearts and souls.

Good and Evil

A significant issue in the realm of knowledge is the matter of “evils and afflictions.” The main question that arises in this complex matter is whether evils and afflictions are like blessings and goods, existing as real entities, and caused by specific causes, or whether all blessings are real, while evils and afflictions are purely negative and have no existence, nor do they require a cause or explanation.

Certainly, in the pursuit of logical inquiry, pure absence or negation does not possess any existence other than its mental concept, and even this has a form of existence in the mind. Furthermore, the fact that evils and afflictions in the world of human experience are self-evident and accepted by all is also beyond dispute.

The key question remains: are evils and afflictions real entities, or are they merely non-existence? If one claims that they are purely non-existence, it contradicts external reality. On the other hand, if they are considered real entities, a problem arises regarding their cause—who is the creator of these evils? If they are attributed to Allah, how can we reconcile this with the fact that He is the absolute Good? And if we attribute them to an evil being, we fall into the trap of dualism.

In response to this question, philosophers and theologians who understand Allah as a singular, absolute being have faced challenges in explaining the existence of evil. To resolve this, they often describe evils as non-existent, so as not to attribute them to the absolute Good, and also to avoid the need for a creator other than Allah. Thus, according to this view, evils are considered to be non-existent, requiring no creator, and if there is any semblance of existence in them, it is merely an additional feature that is still fundamentally rooted in non-existence.

Therefore, philosophers have argued that evils are non-existent, not because they originally thought this to be true, but because when they encountered difficulties in explaining the cause of evil, they resorted to this non-existence argument.

Victory and Defeat from the Perspective of the Holy Qur’an

Victory, in the context of attaining eternal happiness, and defeat, as the eternal deprivation, are concepts that are thoroughly depicted in the language of the only complete heavenly book. As it is stated: “Whoever is kept away from the Fire and admitted into Paradise has indeed succeeded” (3:185), “Whoever obeys Allah and His Messenger has indeed achieved a great success” (33:71), “Allah is pleased with them, and they are pleased with Him; this is the great success” (5:119).

Whoever is kept distant from eternal deprivation and achieves eternal success is indeed prosperous. The person who escapes from the fire of the Hereafter and enters Paradise is victorious. Anyone who obeys Allah and His Messenger is truly successful and has attained a great victory. The great success lies in the satisfaction of the Truth (Allah) and distance from rebellion and defiance. “The inhabitants of Paradise are the victorious ones” (59:20); those in Paradise are the true winners and victors.

Thus, the Qur’an considers the final and eternal position of the human being as the criterion for success and failure, happiness and misery. All transient phases and worldly powers, if they have an eternal afterlife dimension, represent success and victory; otherwise, they are nothing but deprivation and failure.

History has seen many powerful people and leaders of great might whose names are no longer remembered today. Though each of them experiences their current deprivation without exception, in their spiritual essence in the afterlife, they continue their journey in the presence of the Truth, filled with joy, just as the righteous servants and divine saints endured many hardships in this worldly realm, but today, all of those trials are behind them, and these great individuals now experience divine presence with joy in their spiritual realm.

The Principle of ‘Passing’ and ‘Eternality’

Human life, in its ebb and flow, undergoes different periods. At times one is filled with happiness, and at other times, sorrow. There are periods of struggle, and other times, one experiences liberation and stability.

There are moments when an individual’s entire being is consumed by pain, and the vastness of the world feels so suffocating that there seems to be no way out, while at other times, one is overwhelmed with joy, triumph, power, and the vastness of control, thinking, “Oh cloud, rain where you will, all of it is my domain.” Sometimes one becomes weary of the remaining years of life, and at other times, one wishes for a longer existence. One may feel lonely and desolate, or at times, tired of crowds and people.

All these experiences, along with the many other states and emotions which carry both beautiful and unpleasant characteristics, are part of a passing reality, and none of them is permanent. It is clear that no state is lasting. The passage of time, the ups and downs, and the triumphs and defeats in human actions are inevitable, and all members of the human race accept this reality, even if they are unaware of its immediate or eventual occurrence. This is why many people are not overly concerned about it.

What truly remains after all these passing states and events, successes and failures, and all the fleeting experiences, is eternity, which determines the fate, happiness, or misery, victory or defeat of the human being.

Thus, two fundamental principles can be derived from the entire journey of the human being, with its different stages and characteristics: firstly, the principle of passing, and secondly, the principle of the eternal face.

The eternity of a person can either manifest in the face of happiness or misery, success or defeat, and this eternal reality aligns with the principle of passing.

One must recognise and deeply understand that the principle of ‘passing’ is an essential one, while the principle of eternity is the very identity of the human being, which will never be lost, and the eternal reality will ultimately reveal itself in either the form of victory or defeat.

This is the moment when a person must discern their own position in existence and shape all their actions in accordance with the eternal principle, ensuring that the temporary and difficult experiences of the passing phase do not jeopardise the eternal outcome. This requires immense patience, faith, and divine assistance, as well as purity and sincerity.

The key here is to fully acknowledge and believe in the reality of these two principles. Mere knowledge and verbal acknowledgment are insufficient. Confusion, rebellion, and deviation arise from a lack of awareness or faith in these principles.

When a person focuses on the passing phase and uses their worldly victories and defeats as the ultimate criterion, and when they engage in transgression and oppression, it reflects their obliviousness to these two principles. A person may view their worldly challenges as the ultimate ones, but they fail to recognise their eternal predicament, as they have no proper understanding of this fundamental issue.

It is necessary to understand and believe in these two principles and educate society accordingly, so that many of the disarray and problems faced by humanity can be resolved. By doing so, humans can distinguish the path of goodness and virtue from error and deficiency.

The task of conveying these two principles lies with the righteous members of society, the learned, and the pious, so that humanity is guided in the proper direction, distinguishing the right path from the wrong, and ensuring that their eternal happiness is not jeopardised for the sake of passing worldly matters.

May the enlightenment of knowledge and the strength of faith serve as a guide for humanity in the pursuit of these principles in the depths of their hearts and souls.

Good and Evil

Among the important topics in the realm of knowledge is the issue of “evils and afflictions.” The main question here is whether evils and afflictions, like goodness and blessings, are real entities and caused by specific factors, or whether goodness is a real entity, while evils and afflictions are entirely non-existent and do not have a cause or reason.

It is clear that, according to philosophical investigation, pure non-existence has no reality except as a mental concept, and that concept itself contains a form of non-existence. This is also a reality for the human mind, which readily accepts the existence of evils and afflictions in the material world.

The central issue is whether evils and afflictions are real entities or mere non-existence. If it is claimed that they are entirely non-existent, it contradicts our experiences and the external reality. On the other hand, if they are considered to be real entities, a problem arises regarding the cause of these evils and afflictions: if they are caused by the Divine, how can they be attributed to the Absolute Good? If we attribute them to an evil force, such as the devil, then dualism and polytheism would arise.

In response to this question, philosophers and theologians who view God as a singular, indivisible entity have encountered difficulties in explaining the cause of evils and have, therefore, proposed that evils are non-existent in order to avoid attributing them to the Divine and to prevent the need for another creator, which could imply dualism. Therefore, according to this view, evils are non-existent and have no cause; if they contain any aspect of existence, it is merely a part of the total existence, and non-existence, by itself, has no real share in existence.

The Role of Instability, Imitation, and Conceptual Understanding

The role of instability, imitation, or conceptual clarity, without examining this matter, suggests that our philosophy may resemble literature, which elevates a concept to its utmost perfection and attributes numerous artificial qualities to it. However, without knowing its true source, it seeks a vast world of water.

“Rich in definition…” (1)

The definitions offered for existence must themselves be existential. Generic and repetitive definitions do not provide clarity. After proving the existence or a truth that is undeniable, this truth acquires the title that it can never be without definition, and its definition must be based on existence. These definitions can vary, yet all of them belong to the same category, not just a mere concept, subject, or predicate, which presents a difficult issue for our philosophers. Hence, philosophers resort to the tools of concept and essence when defining existence, and when they define existence through rigid logical boundaries, it is said that existence cannot be defined, even though those logical boundaries are foreign to existence. It is akin to trying to place water in an air-filled container or encasing fire within a layer of water.

The definition of existence, after proving its truth and reality, can be established through its manifestations, effects, and characteristics. By expressing its attributes, it can be known, and the more such knowledge increases, the closer one becomes to its presence.

Here, a critique of the late Haji is relevant, as he attempted to reconcile the concepts of concealment and manifestation through both concept and example, while the current level is not one of conceptualisation. It is the essence of existence that is more familiar or concealed, not that its concept is more familiar, and its exemplification more concealed, as he claimed.

One should say: “Its example is the most familiar of all things” and yet also “its example is in the utmost concealment.”

The Problem of Essence in Our Philosophy

An age-old and complicated issue in our philosophy, which has preoccupied many thinkers, is the matter of essence. Essence so envelops our philosophy that many philosophical decisions are made from an essentialist perspective, and issues are identified based on the assumption of essence. As long as essence has not manifested, discussions cannot come to light.

The definition of existence, mental existence, and acquired and immediate knowledge are some of the subjects connected to this. Essence has become a matter of great debate, with schools having distinct interpretations: the Peripatetics speak of it in one way, the Illuminationists in another, and the theologians in yet another.

Some, like the Illuminationists, attribute primacy to it, while others, like the theologians, deny its very origin. Mystics also interpret it in their own way, relating essence to the fixed entity or scientific existence, and each scholar has a unique approach in this regard.

In philosophy, mental constructs, beliefs, and traditions often replace reasoning and proof, taking on the form of a rationale without us realising it. The separation of these emotional, psychological, and doctrinal factors from rational argument and objective reality is not an easy task. The recovery of these two from each other is difficult, and only the Infallibles and the divine saints have succeeded in thoroughly resolving this issue. Even renowned philosophers have often mixed these elements in major discussions, leaving one in a state of bewilderment upon reviewing them. Consequently, weaker individuals may become suspicious of reasoning and proof.

As our philosophers have been unable to fully utilise experiential knowledge and the attributes and effects of existence, their arguments often lack empirical grounding, remaining incomplete. This neglect has led to the accusation that philosophy is idealistic and mentalistic, with our philosophers retreating into isolated corners, reclaiming their beliefs without reference to objects and entities, in contrast to empirical philosophers who have distanced themselves from reasoning and become ensnared in flawed comparisons and inductions.

Here, the greatness of the Qur’an’s methodology shines through, offering the best guidance to all thinkers. The Qur’an not only considers decisive proof and reasoning as the basis for any belief, rejecting the foundations of conjecture and incomplete experiences, but also makes excellent and delicate use of the attributes and effects of entities. It invites humanity to engage directly with objects and beings, steering clear of purely mental speculations.

The Qur’an thoroughly examines the understanding of each entity, from individual beings to groups, nations, and their attributes, conducting an analysis based on real, empirical reasoning, and further deconstructs each entity in relation to others, closing the door to mental speculation and the web of doubt.

Our philosophy must refine its method and align its scientific and practical approach with the Qur’an’s guidance to avoid extremes. It should not mix definitive proof and reasoning with beliefs, traditions, and assumptions from other sciences and disciplines, nor distance itself from the tangible understanding of entities. Philosophy should engage directly with the presence of things, stepping out of the isolation of books and papers, and ensure its foundation is rooted in certainty and proof, not conjecture. Just as it upholds certainty and proof in theory, it must also implement this practically, avoiding naive belief, imitation, and the mere arrangement of logical syllogisms.

The issues mentioned above highlight some of the challenges that our philosophy faces, such as stagnation, regression, mentalism, and backwardness. These have led many followers and adherents to become disheartened or unable to comprehend its principles. Meanwhile, its critics perceive our philosophy as detached from true philosophy, consisting solely of imaginary mental constructs, and dismiss its scientific value. It is time for divine philosophy to undergo a thorough analysis, free from the various factions such as the Peripatetics, Illuminationists, and others. We must strive to open up this field, creating a philosophy that harmonises with modern intellectual trends and the empirical realities of existence, taking divine philosophy into all the scientific arenas of today’s world. It should not be confined to a few terms and concepts like essence, existence, and mental or external existence, nor reduced to mere verbal disputes and factional quarrels.

On the Nature of Existence

The late Haji, in this passage, provides a reason for the failure to grasp the essence of existence: if the essence of existence is realised, it has two possibilities: either it has effects, in which case it is not mental, or it has no effects, in which case it is not the essence of existence.

In response to this reasoning, it should be said that one can find the true essence of existence without having external effects, as the essence of a thing is not limited to its external existence. Not everything that has no effect is devoid of essence; the essence of a thing is broader than its external attributes. One can experience fire in the soul without physically interacting with it, yet still, that soul can ignite fire externally, without being directly consumed by it.

Thus, it is not the case that everything that appears in the mind lacks essence, nor is it true that only things with external existence have essence. The multiplicity of levels cannot diminish the essence’s integrity, unless one has failed to grasp the essence of something in an intellectual sense and is trapped solely in its linguistic and conceptual forms.

On the Difference Between Eternal Realities and the Present and Intermediary States

Philosophers have stated that all mental concepts ultimately relate to existence and non-existence, with no broader concepts existing beyond them. These two are opposites, with no intermediary between them. However, it should be said that what pertains to reality and the external is existence, and non-existence, or an intermediary called “present”, does not exist. The acceptance or rejection of an intermediary would necessitate existence and non-existence, leading to the conclusion that the present or intermediary must either exist or not exist, and this remains clear through both experience and reasoning.

A question arises here regarding the nature of “eternal realities” in mystical language. Mystics maintain that these eternal truths are neither non-existent nor existent, neither are they in existence nor out of it, but they are fixed, stating that the essences of possibilities in the divine science of the Creator are eternally fixed. They will never see the shadow of existence, and it is famously stated, “The fixed essences never sense the fragrance of existence.” To clarify the difference between these two views, it should be noted that the mystical and Mu’tazili views are distinct, sharing only the term “fixed”. The mystic believes that existence is actual existence, and the fixed existence refers to divine knowledge, while the material existence is considered as fixed in divine knowledge and the essential nature of possibilities, as opposed to external realities.

In summary, it is argued that the essential existence of the Divine is not merely a material existence, nor is it external; if it were of the class of existence and reality, the distinction between it and external existence would be only one of detail and manifestation, not something fundamentally different. Therefore, the task of mystics becomes simply a matter of creating terminology within different states of existence, which is not a matter of fundamental conceptual creation.