An Introduction to the Jurisprudence of Music

An Introduction to the Jurisprudence of Music

The science of music is one of the most complex and modern sciences of today. Its history includes the profound ideas of philosophers such as Avicenna and al-Farabi. The subject of this science is sound. Sound extends across a range of divine sounds, one example being the revelation of the Prophets. Another example is the heavenly sounds that mystics encounter through spiritual listening. Sound in nature has countless manifestations and forms: the pleasant and soothing sound of a waterfall, the sweet and intoxicating song of a nightingale, the mournful sound of the wind in the poplar tree, the sound of ocean waves, and the refreshing morning breeze—all have their own unique musical qualities.

Sound is a symbol of the movement and life of every phenomenon. A being that does not have sound has no growth or movement. When sound is rhythmic, it becomes music. Sound can be the voice of truth or the voice of falsehood. It is through its sound that falsehood opposes truth, and it is through the sound of truth that falsehood is overcome.

In this paper, we approach the study of rhythmic and melodious sound scientifically, examining its external reality from the perspectives of empirical science and philosophy, and discussing its jurisprudential rulings. This study explores both the philosophy (ontology) of music and the engineering of female vocal performance. It also addresses forbidden forms of music and fallacies in the jurisprudential understanding of song, as well as the rulings concerning forms of joy associated with music, such as dancing, clapping, whistling, and snapping fingers.

This work, with its delicate insights into the definition of sound, music, its rulings, and the underlying criteria, can serve as a reliable source for understanding music, its scope, magnificence, and function, as well as the joys that accompany it.

It should be noted that the jurisprudential references of this book are elaborated in the seven-volume work Fiqh al-Ghina wa al-Musiqi (Jurisprudence of Song and Music). Therefore, if someone has critiques regarding the propositions of this book, particularly on topics such as “female vocal performance,” “dancing,” or “viewing the shape of the body,” they must first thoroughly study Fiqh al-Ghina wa al-Musiqi and, for an understanding of the historical context, also read The Analytical History of Music in Islam.

Today, the eyes of the people are upon the Islamic system, and they expect clear statements and rulings from this system, which claims to be based on the principle of leadership (Wilayat). Consequently, the religious responsibility of jurists and scholars is heavier than ever before, and it cannot be compared to the past history of Shia jurisprudence.

Discussing the principles and criteria for rulings and the causes behind divine laws in contemporary society is essential. Jurisprudence must research the real causes of rulings and prove the wisdom, rationale, and reasons behind the divine laws, establishing a modern foundation of jurisprudence and law that will contribute to the development of a vibrant Shiite civilisation in the coming centuries.

Such a jurisprudence can instil hope in the oppressed of the world. Today, everyone has realised that neither Western powers nor other nations can wield the power of oppression and tyranny. Only culture can dominate the world, and the future conflicts will be struggles between civilisations and cultures of knowledge. Currently, the dominant culture is the humanistic teachings of the West, and the only powerful culture that can competently compete with it is Shiism, which has the backing of two hundred and seventy years of leadership by the infallibles and can address the intellectual, cultural, spiritual, and material challenges of today’s and tomorrow’s world. This culture can provide solutions for the liberation of people from oppression, ensuring their worldly well-being and guiding them to the hereafter. Achieving this status requires great efforts from religious scholars, and this is the essence of ijtihad, jurisprudence, and legal reasoning.

With the growth of rationality and, consequently, people’s increased interest in spirituality, we must engage with them using scientific principles. We can no longer argue that Islamic rulings are without reason and must be accepted based on blind obedience. Today, the academic world cannot be addressed with doctrinal answers without scientific or philosophical analysis, as they rely solely on empirical facts and do not recognise blind faith. Islam, as a religion transcending time, has come to govern all societies, including modern and scientific ones. The Qur’an, as the miracle of the finality of prophethood, is a timeless scientific book that covers all matters, addressing every topic. However, to understand its meanings, one must be well-versed in its specialised language.

Praise be to God.

The Philosophy of Music
Mathematics as the Basis of Music Science

In ancient wisdom, music was considered a branch of mathematical science. Ancient philosophy broadly included most sciences, and a philosopher was one who possessed knowledge of all these sciences. Ancient wisdom categorised the fundamental sciences into three branches: theology, natural philosophy, and mathematics, as the subject of theoretical philosophy either deals with material entities or non-material ones. The concept of these entities is either dependent on matter or not. If both the concept and the external entity depend on matter, it falls under “natural philosophy.” If the matter is only involved in the entity’s existence but not its concept, it is referred to as “mathematics.”

Mathematics is one of the pillars of ancient philosophy. One cannot be a philosopher without being aware of the core branches of wisdom, otherwise, their philosophical understanding would be incomplete. Music, as a branch of mathematics, is closely related to other disciplines such as arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy, and is an essential part of philosophy. Great philosophers—most of whom were Shia—were skilled in this science to enhance their philosophical views and refine their linguistic abilities, allowing them to structure their ideas with precision, much like arranging musical notes.

The principles of mathematics are based on four core areas:

1. Understanding quantities, their properties, and related aspects, which belong to the field of “geometry,” dealing with continuous quantities.
2. Understanding numbers and their properties, which are discrete quantities and belong to the field of “arithmetic.”
3. Understanding the differences in celestial bodies and their relations with each other and with earthly bodies, which is the field of “astronomy” and “cosmology.”
4. Understanding the relations and properties of constituent parts, which belongs to the science of “composition.” This is the area where “music” falls.

The sub-branches of music also extend into fields like optics, mechanics, and even some mystical sciences such as the study of divination and the astrolabe, which are initially linked to mathematics but move beyond it in their practical application.

Music involves the arrangement of different notes in terms of their pitch and duration, creating harmony and rhythm when arranged in a balanced manner. When these sounds are harmoniously organised, they form what we recognise as music.

Music is the voice of the soul. Through its systems and modes, music expresses the natural harmony of sounds. It is a revelation of the internal movements of the spirit, arising from contemplation on the natural world, where acceptance of its principles becomes possible. This is similar to logic, which is not an artificial construct but is based on the natural and inherent structure of healthy thought and the inherent nature of the intellect.

The science of music, like the science of phonetics, acoustics, and voice, involves arranging sounds in a rhythmic and natural manner. Music, particularly in its professional form, requires knowledge of general sciences, natural sciences, arithmetic, and geometry, all of which fall under the broader umbrella of mathematics. For example, the extension of sound is similar to the drawing of a line in geometry, and the trill in music is analogous to numerical arithmetic.

Although the terms “ghina” and “qana” both refer to ability or capability, “qana” carries a stronger connotation of durability and is specifically used in the context of immovable objects, those that cannot be transferred. Therefore, it does not apply to voice, which is capable of movement and transfer. “Ghina” is not referred to as “qana” because it is subject to fluctuations. The voice, with its specific mechanism, can be influenced by factors such as pitch, duration, tone, and even the occurrence of tremors or fluctuating tones.

“Ghina”—meaning ability—has its human representatives. “Sound” is one manifestation of power. A particular type of sound is referred to as “ghina” because possessing this specific sound is considered an example of ability. God is “ghani” (self-sufficient) because He possesses power and is self-reliant, needing nothing outside Himself.

Beauty, wealth, and a pleasant voice are all forms of ability. These three aspects have the capacity to influence others and bring humility. People with beautiful appearances or pleasant voices tend to feel a sense of self-worth. Beauty is akin to “ghina” and brings wealth, but those who are not endowed with such beauty—especially those who lack strong faith—may experience a deficiency in self-esteem. Possessing a beautiful voice and an appealing sound is a form of ability. When someone sings beautifully, others humble themselves before them, listening attentively. Beauty, too, can influence the observer and the enamored person. Some abilities can be exploited, such as beauty, which can be admired unless it is concealed. This is not the case with the ability of sound; if the sound is hidden in any way, it continues to exert influence, leading to arrogance and superiority, much like wealth, which breeds self-sufficiency and pride.

In the etymology of the specific sound referred to as “ghina” (meaning ability), it can be stated that a pleasant voice is a type of ability that is not fixed. It has movement, modulations, fluctuations, and variations in pitch, unlike “qana,” which pertains to immovable things. Additionally, lyrical songs were often performed at gatherings of the wealthy, political elites, and affluent individuals, who were known for their music, thus the term “ghina” was adopted.

The word “ghani” and its derivatives appear in the Qur’an about seventy-two times. In none of these instances does it refer to sound or a description of sound; in all cases, it signifies possession or wealth.

An analysis of the usage of the term “ghina” in the Qur’an reveals that any instance of “ghina” used in relation to beings other than God is accompanied by arrogance and excess. However, when used in relation to God, no such excess or arrogance is implied, and just as its meaning differs, its linguistic usage also reflects this distinction.

Ghani Voice

“Ghina” is distinct from sound, singing, shouting, or speech and is a description of sound. We will explore the factors that influence and contribute to “ghina.” Just as the creation of sound is highly complex, discussing “ghina” cannot simply be accomplished by understanding a mode or form of articulation. Only through a precise and experiential understanding of “ghina” can one attempt to define it. “Ghina” is a mixture of resonance, flexibility, tone, modulation, ornamentation, pitch, and other intricate aspects. For a comprehensive understanding of “ghina” and music, all of these elements have been previously explained, and the process of creating a “ghina” sound has been outlined step by step. “Ghina” is a description of sound, and sound, singing, modulation, repetition, tone, joy, and other characteristics are aspects that pertain to it and describe it.

“Ghina” is one of the qualities of sound and singing, which gives it rhythm and harmony. Sound and singing are divided into good and bad categories, and “ghina” refers to pleasant, harmonious, and well-formed sound. When sound takes a harmonious shape, it becomes “ghina.” Therefore, dissonant and unpleasant sound is not “ghina.” “Ghina” is a description of a melody or a beautiful sound, which, through the use of all natural and scientific means, is produced by the singer or an instrument. Music is different from “ghina” and is broader than sound, as it deals with melodies, rhythms, notes, and the tone and timbre of sound, as well as the different musical modes. Music performed with instruments such as the violin, sitar, or others is music, but “ghina” can be produced using musical instruments, such as with a nasal string instrument or a throat instrument, or even with a sitar, where the difference lies in the air passage, theme, and category. Thus, music can be either harmonious or non-harmonious. “Ghina,” however, is solely concerned with sound and does not extend to musical instruments such as the ney, flute, or violin. Not every sound is considered “ghina.” Because “ghina” is a description of sound, the singing of religious hymns, or the recitations of religious poets and mourners, differs from the singing of professional vocalists. Sometimes, a mourner might recite more than fifty verses of poetry, but a singer cannot repeat more than one poem or one quatrain as a refrain; for the singer, the key aspect is the meaningful voice that he produces, and the words or lyrics are secondary—like salt in food. For a singer, the key is the mode they perform in. Sometimes, instrumental music is performed without lyrics, where the orchestra does its work. A performer with instruments such as the ney, violin, or accordion can play instrumental music without lyrics. They enter the melody, follow the rhythm, rise, return, and then reduce to a subtle note, returning to the melody, without anyone singing. Thus, “ghina” and music are not descriptions of words, but descriptions of sound. Therefore, the criteria set by some scholars who argue that all music is inherently forbidden are misguided, as they stray from the main topic of discussion.

The Subject of Music: Sound

The subject of music is sound, specifically the form and shape of sound. Sound relates to its form, but meaning lies in its content. When someone speaks, they have a voice and a word, and the word is the material of sound. The same applies when someone sings.

Even a mute person communicates meaning through their silent speech. A scholar would deem the speech of a mute to be meaningless, as it does not have the conventional or situational connotation of a word. A mute’s speech is like the incoherent singing of a singer. Both sound and content, whether vocal or instrumental, exist in “ghina” and music. However, in natural connotation, sometimes the material is vocal, and sometimes it is silent, while in conventional connotation, there is no such thing as silent material. In melodic ornamentation, meaning is silent, and someone familiar with this language can understand its meaning.

One form of “ghina” is when someone sings melodically, that is, performs within a specific mode, and vocalizes without words, performing their voice within one of these modes.

The subject of “ghina” is sound, making music a universal language. This is why the world invests in it. Sound is the universal, comprehensible language of all nations, not words and expressions. For example, “Jee naa kum, jee naa kum hayoonaa hayoonaa” is speech, but “Daalam daam daam daalam daam daam” is a sound with a specific mode and is not related to conventional words, and this sound is the subject of “ghina” and music. The material of “ghina” is sound, and the pleasure it brings requires musical knowledge and expertise. A pleasant and harmonious sound is termed “ghina” when it is released with the specific musical properties and characteristics required for its expression. This is why producing a beautiful sound from one’s voice is challenging. Singing is difficult. For instance, reciting a prayer during the Maghrib and Isha prayers, which must be pronounced aloud, often takes longer than speaking for an extended period. A singer expends all their effort to pronounce the words well and correctly, although sometimes they may not succeed. The difficulty of singing sometimes leads a singer to resort to “cutting” or “stealing” parts of the singing, for example, singing one word with two breaths without anyone noticing. Singers accept that this is the best they can do and that they have exerted their utmost effort. They breathe and take in air so intensely that it seems their entire body, not just their lungs, is on the verge of bursting from the strain. For example, some reciters of the Qur’an, when reading, exert all their energy, place their hands by their ears, press against their veins, open their eyes wide, causing their neck veins to swell, their faces to turn red, and their voices to come out forcefully. This effort requires considerable energy and is dangerous, placing great strain on their nerves. The energy expended in this activity is equivalent to the effort required for several hours of speaking, and excessive speaking can lead to premature death, just as speaking too much increases friction in the body and stresses the lungs, stomach, veins, and nerves. However, when another part of the body is used, it serves as a form of exercise, promoting longevity and health.

“Ghina is a description of sound.” Thus, sound can be divided into harmonious and non-harmonious, or rhythmic and non-rhythmic, whereas music is broader than harmonious sound produced by human voices or instruments.

Sorrow, Lamentation, and Joy

“Sorrow” is a subtle pain, in contrast to “lamentation,” which is a harsh anguish. In other words, lamentation corresponds to the use of coarse devices, while sorrow is expressed through finer instruments. For instance, the Shushtari (a Persian musical scale), Mahoor, or Segah are sorrowful, whereas Chahargah is coarse and sharp, reaching the level of a shout.

It is narrated that the Holy Qur’an was revealed with sorrow, and therefore, it should be recited with sorrow. By “sorrow,” it refers to a gentle and soft tone, as opposed to a harsh and deep voice. The Qur’an is the epitome of “Ya Latif” (O Subtle One), and thus it is gentle and pure, needing to be recited with softness and sorrow.

Sorrow, too, can be a source of joy. The Dasti (a Persian music mode) is melancholic, while Shour is especially a mode for sorrow. Yet, both these modes can bring joy. A singer performing Dasti or Zabol may bring a sorrowful joy to the listener, moving them to tears. Joy is the dividing line between sorrow and happiness; it lowers the heart in sorrow and lifts it in joy.

Tajweed

Tajweed refers to the articulation of each letter with the proper enunciation, including the essential accompanying details. Tajweed is an element of Ghina (melody), and its proper implementation is essential. Joddat or Tajweed is a characteristic of the word, while Ghina is a characteristic of the sound and melody. Thus, Ghina precedes Tajweed. A Ghina-based melody can exist without Tajweed, but a word with Tajweed cannot lack Ghina.

Tajweed plays a significant role in enhancing the recitation of the Holy Qur’an. For example, the observance of the elongation of vowels (madd) in the Qur’an, some of which must be maintained for proper Tajweed, substantially enhances the recitation. The Al-Fatiha surah is among the most challenging in this regard. To properly extend the vowels, Tughnī (melodic ornamentation) must be added. Its long vowels cannot be articulated correctly without it, just as the Qur’an cannot be recited beautifully without a melodious tone.

The Al-Fatiha is called the Fatihah because it is an opener and breaker of paths. One who recites it without Tughnī cannot break new ground, and they become like the people of the Torah who recite with a monotonous and stammering voice, hesitant to raise their voice for fear of being criticized. Similarly, there are those who, when unable to pronounce a word correctly in their recitation of the Qur’an, mumble it through their nose so that the listener cannot discern their difficulties with the vowels.

Melody

Melody refers to the thinning of sound. A beautiful voice, when accompanied by other qualities, becomes delicate and becomes known as a melody. Melody differs from the essence of sound, being the sharpness or piercing nature of the voice.

Trill

Trill involves rolling the sound in the throat, creating a trill or a warble, also known as Tahrir in musical terms. This trill in song or chant carries a specific meaning. Animals also produce various trills, which can vary in intensity and beauty. For instance, the nightingale and the cricket produce beautiful and loud trills, whereas the donkey also creates a strong trill, albeit less melodically pleasant.

Stimulation

A voice can either be captivating (inspiring joy) or stimulating (provoking action). Beyond the joy and trill, sound can also serve to provoke or stimulate.

The relationship between joy and stimulation in sound is logically considered to be of the type general and specific overlap; that is, a sound may be neither captivating nor stimulating, or it may be both. A sound can be captivating but not stimulating, or it can be stimulating but not captivating. Some sounds may be captivating but fail to provoke action, while others may stimulate action without producing joy. For example, the charm of the voice of a beautiful woman may stimulate a person to desire her without evoking joy, and such a voice may lead the listener toward sin.

It is crucial to understand that both joy and stimulation are intrinsic to the sound itself, regardless of the listener’s perception. While both of these qualities can influence the listener, the actual sound carries the potential for both qualities independent of how the listener reacts. Some individuals, due to inner disorders, may not experience joy from a captivating voice, while others, under different emotional or mental conditions, may be easily stimulated by even a slight sound. For instance, a person suffering from emotional distress may be moved to action by even a subtle, innocent sound, whereas someone in a balanced state might remain unaffected.

Hence, stimulation and joy are intrinsic properties of sound that may or may not have an effect depending on the listener’s conditions, whether emotional, physical, or situational. These characteristics should not be applied with strict rules but rather with consideration for context.

Stimulation can either arise from the sound itself or the person producing the sound. A sound may lack the ability to captivate but still provoke action, such as the case with a beautiful woman whose voice alone may not bring joy, yet her beauty may stimulate the listener. Similarly, a young couple, newly engaged, may find their interaction with one another stimulating without necessarily involving joy or a musical component.

Melodic and Harmonic Patterns

The form and structure that sound takes, or the organisation of sounds, can either be human-made or occur through musical instruments. When this structure is created vocally, it is referred to as a Dastgah (a Persian classical music mode) or a Rudif (a melodic pattern). When it is created using instruments, it is called a Melody or a Note. Instruments either produce sound through breath or through manual manipulation, such as plucking or striking.

Thus, notes, Dastgah, and Rudif are the frameworks or shapes that give form to sound, reflecting either sorrow or joy. Sorrow and joy are not types of Dastgah, but rather shapes or forms that represent and transmit these emotions.

The Purpose of Sound

As mentioned earlier, all phenomena emerge through the principles of contraction and expansion. All aspects of existence, including the movement of the cosmos, reveal themselves through these dynamics. God’s attributes of beauty (Jamal) and majesty (Jalal) manifest through the cosmic unfolding, each movement embodying a form of sound. All movements, whether existential, emotional, or natural, express the states of closeness and distance, union and separation, and the oscillations of being.

If we define movement loosely as “the transition from potentiality to actuality,” this can be understood as the process of separation (contraction) and arrival (expansion). All phenomena in the world can be understood through the concepts of closeness and distance, union and separation, attachment and detachment, and this dynamic movement creates sound and vibration, which is itself a manifestation of divine presence.

Sound, then, is a reflection of these universal movements and the divine principles that underlie them. Every phenomenon in existence has its own sound, representing its essential nature. In this sense, sound is not just an incidental feature but a manifestation of divine order, revealing the essence of creation. As such, sound holds profound symbolic significance, reflecting the spiritual, intellectual, and even physical states of being.

Human Voice: A Divine Gift

Ibn Sina, in his profound insights, eloquently states, “Sound carries its own sweetness, and if one does not partake in it, they will not find it elsewhere.” Indeed, sound, with its inherent sweetness, is a divine gift embedded within all living beings. The human voice, in particular, has a unique ability to create beautiful melodies, surpassing even those of the birds. This is because humans, endowed with a higher consciousness, are able to articulate the fullest potential of nature, giving expression to its deepest beauty.

The voice, as a manifestation of nature’s divine creation, serves as a powerful tool for spiritual, intellectual, and emotional expression. The act of singing or creating sound is not merely a physical phenomenon; it is an expression of the soul. Thus, the human voice is an extraordinary gift, capable of producing not just auditory pleasure, but also profound spiritual nourishment.

Today, sound has become a tool for promoting both truth and falsehood. An example of this can be found in the groups of religious preachers (known as “madahans”) within the country and certain singers abroad. The preachers have become the voices of the Islamic system, while some singers outside the borders act as voices of the opposition. Singers are the only artists who have managed to remain influential abroad, bringing the opposition out of obscurity, whereas the preachers within the country have such influence that, at times, they even dominate over religious scholars. Indeed, even wise individuals may struggle to confront them. This demonstrates the power and significance of sound. Both preachers and singers possess the ability to unleash their voices, but those who lack the courage or proper training to do so are deprived of this power. The sweetness of sound is what makes people enamoured and captivated by it—a power that is not found in other tools. Scholars must possess the ability to freely release their voice and control their speech, enabling them to communicate easily with the general public. Imam Khomeini (may his soul rest in peace) became powerful not only due to his courage, mysticism, and wisdom, but also because he could establish a sweet verbal connection with the people. He was a master of speech, which he used to deeply affect the hearts and minds of the people. Imam Khomeini (may Allah bless him) was able to make people weep effortlessly, just as easily as he could make them laugh. When we examine the past of any successful individual, we see that their families possessed free thought and sound beliefs, staying far from outdated, dogmatic, and closed-minded ideas. Otherwise, their children would not have experienced such development. The late Imam, who became the leader, did so because he lived freely from a young age and was not raised in a family where freedom of speech and action were restricted.

The Sweetness of Sound

Imam Ja’far al-Sadiq (peace be upon him) has elegantly discussed the art of sound and music in his work Tawhid al-Mufaddal, where he provided profound insights that were far ahead of others like the genius of the centuries, Ibn Sina (may Allah have mercy on him), who only scratched the surface of these matters. It is a great tragedy that capable students or the right environment for the flourishing of such knowledge from the Imams (peace be upon them) was not available. The Imams were severely oppressed, and their legacy, even during the era of the rulers of the Ahl al-Wilayah (People of the Authority), remains largely alien. Despite these narratives, one feels ashamed to compare the views of Ibn Sina, with all his prominence, in the book on music and voice with the words of the infallible Imam (peace be upon him).

In this narration, there is not only no mention of the prohibition of sound, music, or melody, but rather, sound is beautifully and sweetly depicted. Based on this, it should be said that those who view sound and music with suspicion and sometimes refrain from benefiting from them are taking a different stance from that of Imam Ja’far al-Sadiq (peace be upon him) and his approach. In Tawhid al-Mufaddal, Imam Ja’far al-Sadiq (peace be upon him) lays down the principles of wisdom, physiognomy, palmistry, and psychology, highlighting that the way a person speaks with their lips and tongue is in harmony with their physical and anatomical features, and how the structure of the mouth, teeth, and tongue affects pronunciation and articulation.

Those who believe that enjoying beautiful and melodious sounds is problematic need to read and reflect upon this noble passage from Tawhid al-Mufaddal:

“Without the sense of hearing, the pleasure derived from delightful, charming, and sorrowful sounds would disappear.”

The melody of a sound is one that carries with it a sense of enchantment, allure, excitement, and purity. This trait is more commonly found in the voice of women. It is obvious that Imam al-Sadiq (peace be upon him) never values things that are unlawful or sinful. Therefore, if the Imam considers melodiousness to be good, it implies that being melodious cannot be used as a reason for prohibiting something. Imam Ja’far al-Sadiq (peace be upon him), with his grandeur, speaks of the melodious quality of sound as a commendable attribute. If he mentions the goodness of something based on its melodiousness, it suggests that melodiousness, when properly directed, is a permissible and valuable characteristic. From this and other statements, it becomes clear that the Imam (peace be upon him) values the creation of hearing. The Imam emphasizes that if a person does not hear the news of others, they are like an absent witness among them or as though dead, moving but not alive. A person who lives in isolation is not truly alive, dynamic, or active, and lacks communicative spirit. In reality, a person’s aliveness is proportional to their communication with others and the strength of their voice. People regard someone as alive when they can speak and lead. Similarly, if religion does not have a powerful spokesperson, it becomes isolated and eventually forgotten, just as falsehood retreats if it is devoid of a voice.

However, Imam Ja’far al-Sadiq (peace be upon him) in Tawhid al-Mufaddal brings up the phrase “And the most similar thing to this is the greatest flute,” which is an incredibly profound statement. We have yet to see any book on music that addresses this high-level assertion from a jurisprudential perspective. Have you ever heard of the “greatest flute”? The “greatest flute” is the voice of the person. Have you heard that one of the divine saints refers to the flute (reed) as the greatest? The most similar thing to the human mouth, teeth, and sound system is the “greatest flute.” What is the “greatest flute,” and which reed does the Imam speak of? Does the “greatest flute” resemble the “trumpet of Israfil” (the angel)? It is said that the sound of Israfil is very beautiful. A narration from Sunni sources mentions:

“There is no sound more beautiful in God’s creations than the sound of Israfil, and when he listens to it, the inhabitants of the heavens cease their prayers and glorifications.” (1)

Imam Ja’far al-Sadiq (peace be upon him) tells Mufaddal: “The larynx is like a reed, and the lungs are like bags into which the wind blows, and the muscles that hold the chest so the sound may come out are like fingers placed upon the bag to make the air flow through the reed.”

The sound of a reed is similar: when the holes of the reed are not covered during play, it releases air without producing any sound. However, when the holes are covered and uncovered in the right way, the sound becomes fine, strong, and can vary in pitch.

While it is true that both the sound and reed are related, it would be inaccurate to say that the human vocal system is like a reed. Instead, one should view the reed as similar to the human vocal system, just as the camera is modeled after the human eye, not the other way around. The vocal system and the eye are primary, natural organs, while the reed and the camera are secondary, artificial creations.

The Imam speaks of the “greatest flute,” an object that scholars have yet to identify. This shows the high value of sound, as Imam Ja’far al-Sadiq (peace be upon him) highlights the beauty of the reed and melody in the human voice.

Melody of Sound

As we have said, sound is the quality of a wave, air, and the movement created by the breath or a musical instrument. “Melody” is the quality or characteristic that can be added to a sound. Melody is a rhythmic, natural or acquired harmony of sound that either brings joy or sorrow. The sadness or happiness in a melody reflects the state of the heart, which expresses these emotions, whether from love, joy, or longing. However, in external terms, the emotional quality carried in the melody is a result of the heart’s internal state, which then affects the sound produced.

The Science of Music

The science of music is the study of musical systems and melodies, whether produced with instruments or through the natural voice. Music studies the emotional states embedded in the melody. The concept of “melody science” involves the recognition of musical scales and understanding the diverse musical notes. Music and song should not be regarded as identical; each has its own distinct attributes and requires specific guidelines. Music involves the sound produced by instruments such as the tambur, ney, flute, violin, or other devices, whereas singing (or ghina) is a characteristic of sound itself.

Up to this point, we have discussed the voice as a wild nature — which is the sound of humans — having two aspects: one is the inherent nature, which everyone possesses naturally according to their own capacity. Some have a robust, some a delicate voice, some loud and others soft. This first aspect is non-acquisitive and natural.

The second aspect is acquired and learned. Knowledge and education can refine the natural wild voice to a level higher than its natural state. The training of the voice is akin to learning logic, which, when followed, organises the mind. Vocal art and music are similar to the science of logic, and it is essential for every individual to engage in practical efforts regarding their expression, pronunciation, and the quality of their voice. It is fitting that such matters be taught to students during their early educational years.

Not everyone with a beautiful voice can necessarily sing all modes well. Sometimes, there are lower modes suited to those with a deep voice, and sometimes higher modes suited to those with a lighter voice. Singing from the head, the chest, the mouth, or the throat varies, and each individual sings in their own way. If society advances, and the voices of children are tested early on, they will face fewer pronunciation difficulties as adults.

The Role of an Open Environment on Voice

The openness or confinement of one’s living environment affects their voice. Living in a closed environment, such as a small apartment, limits the mind and shortens life. Just as a lion’s roar changes and becomes wild if kept in a cage, a person’s voice also undergoes changes when kept in a confined space. In contrast, if a person has a spacious home or access to open areas, their voice becomes tame. Of course, if someone lacks access to open spaces, they can go out during the night, particularly in the late hours, to a street or park, wherever there is open air. A child, if consistently confined indoors, will not only lose the purity of their voice but their vision, thoughts, and heart will also become fatigued, resulting in a narrow, rigid development.

Those who live in small homes or apartments and constantly need to remind their families to lower their voices should apologise to their family members. Hearing sounds from someone not of the family does not have the same privacy issues, as a woman’s voice is not inherently hidden. Similarly, the aspect of neighbourhood life involves a degree of deprivation. For those who must live quietly at home, it is advisable to at least go to the desert once a week and shout as much as they can to relieve their frustrations.

The notion of a “spacious home” does not necessarily refer to grand palaces made of turquoise stones, but simply to an open space. For this reason, a person should not sever their relationship with the sky. The prayer offered in an apartment or closed space differs from that prayed in the open. The voice in the former is restricted, whereas in the latter, it is liberated. Prayer in a confined space lacks resonance, and the voice often becomes nasal or throaty. A person should try to spend as much time as possible under the open sky, for open spaces, open minds, open clothing, and open thoughts bring tranquillity. Those who remain indoors too much develop narrow-mindedness and constrain their family members. A lack of trust is the result of a life devoid of freedom and spent in closed environments. If a child’s hands and feet are bound in a cradle, they will grow up with a closed spirit, more susceptible to oppression.

The Impact of Clean Air on the Voice

In addition to proper breathing, clean air is essential for creating a harmonious voice. For those engaged in spiritual practices and mystical journeys, clean air is of utmost importance. Polluted, stagnant, and foul-smelling air clouds the mind and dries up the fountain of thought. It is recommended that a person immersed in spirituality should, as much as possible, live in natural surroundings under the open sky and avoid breathing under a roof. The more time one spends with their gaze directed at the sky, the better.

To develop a good voice, one must also breathe correctly. If someone does not adjust their breathing technique with the proper exercises offered by relevant centres, their voice will lack proper balance. One of the benefits of exercise is that it opens the lungs, expels waste, and purifies the voice.

Voice Softness and Flexibility

As we mentioned earlier, the voice requires resonance, freedom, and flexibility. It must possess softness and adaptability, just as the body of a gymnast is extremely flexible and acts like a spring. In contrast, someone with a stiff body, when bending, makes a sound like dry wood, which lacks the same pliability and flexibility. A voice that lacks flexibility resembles a rigid body — it is not soft or pliable, unable to move up and down or spin in different directions. This lack of pliability is referred to as “low” or “deep” sounds. A deep, rough voice lacks the flexibility to move through different musical modes, whereas a lighter voice can easily transition between different melodies and scales. The person with a light voice can freely stretch their vocal range, while a person with a deeper voice lacks such capability.

Range and Resonance of the Voice

The concept of range and resonance is vital in both music and singing. It is important for a singer to know their vocal range (how many notes or octaves they can sing) and the resonance of the musical mode they are performing. The relationship between these two aspects — the resonance of the voice and the tonal range of the music — must be carefully balanced.

The concept of vocal resonance is also applicable to animals. Some animals, such as cows, have deep voices, while others, like dogs, have higher-pitched barks. Wild animals, in natural environments, tend to have clearer and more resonant voices. Roosters, nightingales, and canaries, for example, have higher-pitched voices. If kept in confined spaces, such as in a cage, they become agitated, whereas chickens do not display the same vocal behaviours.

Voice Texture (Roughness)

Another characteristic of the voice is its texture, which can either be smooth or rough. For example, a radio signal sometimes has a clear reception, while at other times it can be scratchy. As the frequency of the sound increases and becomes coarser, the voice becomes rough. The roughness of a voice is not always easily perceptible in ordinary circumstances. However, someone with an ear for sound will be able to detect these tonal shifts, including the roughness of the voice.

Factors Affecting Music

Just as voices differ from one another, so too does music. Some types of music are unpleasant or discordant to some listeners while others find them pleasing. Music has both form and content. The form refers to the melodies, compositions, and rhythms, while the content refers to the mood and atmosphere conveyed by the music. Both form and content vary according to individual perception, making music a relative experience.

Similarly, listening to music is also an experience that varies based on one’s emotional state. A person might listen to a piece of music when happy or sad, and the impact of the sound will differ depending on their mood. Sometimes, a sound resonates with the listener’s inner state, enhancing their happiness, but at other times, even a pleasing sound can become overwhelming or annoying, such as when the volume is too loud. The perceived loudness or softness of sound is also subjective and depends on factors like the listener’s sensitivity to sound or the acoustics of the environment. For instance, if a person raises their voice slightly in a small room, it may sound bothersome due to poor acoustics, while in an open space, the same volume would not have the same effect.

As God has given us eyes and ears to see and hear, and a throat and voice to speak gently and to sing aloud, it is not the case that speech is merely for amusement, play, or entertainment, although it can serve these purposes. Of course, it can also be used for gossip, slander, and similar purposes, just as the eyes can be used for sin. However, this does not mean we should refrain from experiencing beautiful sights and deem them as meaningless. Now, the person who sings, with their voice and sound, the inflection and the rhythm of their voice, all arise naturally and from instinct, and this is music, which can educate one on its subtleties and truths.

Just as in the past humanity did not understand what fire was, but through intellectual progress, now it even burns the air, so too sound, voice, musical systems, and instruments have undergone the same process. They have emerged from human nature and have progressively developed with time. Sound and voice are part of the melody of the heart and its expressions, just as poetry is. One of humanity’s talents and specialties is composing poetry. With intellectual growth, numerous poems have been written that captivate scholars and those of a sensitive disposition. The term “i`rab” (inflection) is used because it reveals movement. Likewise, sound and voice reveal the inner thoughts: “What is inside the jug is what pours out of it.” Expression of inner feelings sometimes comes through speech and sometimes through shouting. Speech can be both verbal and silent, and between speech and sound, there is unity. Sound cannot exist without speech. Of course, speech, in the sense we are discussing, gives meaning to both meaningless words and sound. In some places and times, one must shout, sing, and there is a close connection between singing and some situations. An example of this is fear. When someone is afraid, like someone walking in the dark or in a deserted alley, they may begin to sing.

Someone who is dreaming and finds themselves in difficulty might unconsciously speak or shout in their sleep. If they don’t, they may experience a nervous breakdown and could even become ill and, ultimately, insane.

When one reaches the peak of fear, speaking or shouting is a source of reassurance. Everyone, involuntarily, begins to sing when deeply afraid. If God had not endowed us with this voice, many fears would lead to strokes. It is like someone who has a fever; if the temperature rises too high, they could convulse. Fever is like the heat beneath a pot; if the temperature rises too high, it would cause the pot’s contents to spill. To avoid convulsion, one must reduce the body’s temperature with methods such as a cold compress to prevent the heat from reaching the brain and causing seizures. A cold compress does not cure fever; it only reduces it and transfers it away from the brain.

Music: The Knowledge of the Melody of the Heart

The knowledge of music is the knowledge of the heart’s expression. Music is the knowledge of “spiritual speech.” This is the speech of the heart of every phenomenon, and the speech of the heart of existence and the Divine truth. A speech that is kept within the essence of existence and its phenomena, not making it external or public, requires sharp ears to understand. When someone strikes a bowl, the bowl’s sound may not be comprehended by the bowl itself, but the heart of the bowl understands this sound. The sound of the bowl is its spiritual speech and the melody of its heart. Of course, the sound that emanates from the bowl, jug, or vessel is not the same as its spiritual speech. Shouting under a dome and the reverberation of that sound is the voice of the person, but the sound of the dome itself, its spiritual speech, is something else. The sound within the jug is different from the sound of the jug itself. These sounds are all external, but the sound of the jug is from itself. The bowls know the melody of their own hearts. Not only the bowls but every phenomenon is aware of the melody of its own heart. This melody differs from the melody of another’s heart, and each heart’s melody is different from another’s. One has a delicate heart, another a tough one. The sound of the heart takes the shape of external sound and melody. This is a sound through which one can examine the heart and understand what phenomenon it belongs to and what feelings and unspoken thoughts it contains, just as the color of a face reveals the secrets within. This knowledge of music, with all its complexities and its present form, can help one understand these matters. The existence of these wonders testifies to the speech of sound.

The point that speech is not merely verbal speech but that sound is also speech is crucial in the understanding of sound and the study of music. This knowledge, if managed and engineered by sages, can lead to astonishing progress, provided certain superficial scholars do not obstruct its progress with their ill-informed actions.

Someone who does not understand the subject of music with the necessary precision is like someone who only sees the dining table as a rectangular shape and, based on this, considers it as a table, but when they enter a restaurant and see circular tables, they say these are not tables and should be discarded! The subject of music is a very intricate and important one. We will speak of its significance in the next sections, particularly in the context of “understanding musical systems and modes.”

Nature: The Teacher of Musical Systems and Instruments

Just as Aristotle, through careful observation of the speech patterns and writings of people, discovered logical propositions, musical systems, modes, and scales were also derived from nature and human accents and have later become more modern and complex. The creation of musical instruments was also inspired by nature. The invention of the first musical instruments is attributed to the sage Pythagoras. Through his careful observations, he created the “tar” from the sound of a hammer and anvil and contemplated the idea of creating the “barbat” from the sound of wind striking a decayed stone. In any case, musical systems and instruments have been created with the meticulous observation of sages in nature. For example, studying the human vocal system led to the creation of some musical instruments, particularly wind instruments. If air is blown through the leaf of a scallion, it produces a sweet sound, just like a reed flute, creating a melody of kindness.

Nature and objects play a fundamental role in the creation of musical systems and the science of music. Humans have been able to discover much of it with their insight. Different cultures have identified various forms of melodies. In Persian, these discoveries are referred to as “maqam” or “dastgah,” which are the general frameworks of melody and the shape and form of sound.

Sound, like its form, has nature, system, rhythm, rhyme, and melody. Sound and voice are inherent to humans and other phenomena, and even the Divine and abstract beings also possess sound and speech.

The modes and scales of vocal music found across cultures have been discovered from nature, and the names given to them represent the shapes of these natural sounds. After these modes were discovered, over time, individuals painstakingly identified their parts, documented them, and incorporated them into history.

Poetry, music, and dance, arising from human emotions, feelings, and states of the soul, such as fear, hope, sorrow, joy, desire, hatred, and other inner states, have always been intertwined with human nature. The most natural means of singing is the lungs and the natural human throat, which Imam Ja’far al-Sadiq (peace be upon him) refers to in Tawhid Mufaddal as the “grand flute” (Al-Bihar, vol. 58, p. 320). Animal horns and plants accessible to humans have led to the invention of wind instruments such as trumpets and flutes and the construction of various drums, percussion, and stringed instruments. Currently, the kamancheh and violin are classified as stringed instruments. Archaeological studies trace the history of wind and string instruments back thousands of years before Christ. Over time, musical instruments were divided into two categories: ceremonial and martial, with the horn, flute, barbat, tambourine, drum, bell, cymbal, and others representing various types (History of Iranian Music, pp. 37-38).

This reveals that it was not the ignorant or criminal elements who invented musical instruments, but rather these instruments were inspired by nature and carefully crafted by sages. Today, however, it is the world of imperialism and rogue elements that exploit the complex science of music the most, while the Islamic world and its superficial theorists show little attention to this science, despite its potential to serve society, ethics, politics, and culture. Of course, music has always maintained a special place in the military, as it is said that Shah Abbas conquered India with the melody of music and lyrical songs.

Shushtari Instrument

The Shushtari instrument is a sorrowful and melancholic device, yet it serves as a pathway for the troubled heart and the soul of the lover. It is a whisper for the mystic, in which the recitation of prayers is also appropriate.

Shushtari transitions from its introduction into Bidad, and then ascends. Nahavandi provides an appropriate corner for it, and after combining and blending the modes, it requires a return to its introduction, soothing the spirit.

The Dastgah of Shur

The Dastgah of Shur is the heaviest of all the Dastgahs, and it is both beautiful and intoxicating. It carries spiritual motivations and creates a unique serenity in the early hours of the morning.

Shur moves from its introduction to Shahnaz, incorporating the Afshari mode, and it draws from the lovers’ corner and Shur Shiraz, each of which maintains its own distinct qualities. It also takes inspiration from Iraq and Rahav.

The Dastgah of Mathnawi (Three-Gah or Pahlavi)

Pahlavi, or the Three-Gah Mathnawi, is an independent corner of the Three-Gah and a unique scale that, like the Mathnawi, holds many notes and tones. This type of Mathnawi differs from the Biat Turk in both its delicacy and rhythm, which is slower and more drawn out than that of the Biat.

The Dastgah of Chahargah

The Chahargah is an independent and melodious Dastgah, typically used in joyous celebrations. It has a robust, strong, and refreshing character, generating happiness and excitement. During moments of joy, it serves as the central melody of the gathering, creating an atmosphere of festivity and pleasure.

This Dastgah moves from its introduction into Zabol, ascends to a contrasting high note, and then returns to its introduction. The most well-known segments of Chahargah are the Chaush’i melody and the Zourkhaneh rhythm, both of which are soothing and exciting in national and religious gatherings, particularly when accompanied by the sound of the caravan bell of Karbala or the rhythmic chants of the heroic competitor.

The Dastgah of Mahur

Mahur is a heavy and elegant Dastgah with a unique sweetness, akin to the freshness of a garden or a lush park.

This Dastgah moves from its introduction to Hasar, giving rise to the broken tone before returning to its introduction, enriched with beautiful corners. Its combination with Afshari and Three-Gah requires considerable skill.

The Dastgah of Rast Panjgah

Rast Panjgah is a Dastgah of vitality and joy. Like Chahargah, it is pleasing and uplifting, and it is highly effective in alleviating the yearnings of the heart.

It takes its introduction from Hasar, follows Rahav and Afshari, then calms itself, making it suitable for many combinations.

Mode Mixing (Tarkib-Khani)

Sometimes, a singer employs various forms of vocal techniques. This skill is known as “tarkib-khani,” where modes or parts of modes are mixed together, creating a harmonious blend. Sometimes, a Dastgah does not begin with its introduction but rather enters via a corner or rhythm, and then returns to the Dastgah. Similarly, a Dastgah might transition into a rhythm and then return to another Dastgah.

The structure of the Maqamat or Dastgahs is delicately crafted according to taste and instinct, and their expression demands a particular mode. The journey from Afshari to Iraq, or Rahav’s acceptance, or Three-Gah’s opposition, each has a story. The differences between Two-Gah, Three-Gah, and Chahargah are also fascinating and precise. Each Dastgah follows its own principles of taste, instinct, and even mathematical rules. Additionally, within the sections, common themes like Ashaq and Raj’a are used, holding greater universality and specific significance.

Meter and rhyme also correlate with music, as discussed in the book The Structure of Poetry. Musicological studies, in mastering meter, use it as a guide in their artistic expressions.

The Challenges of Contemporary Music

One of the issues in contemporary music is that singers and musicians—although they may have good voices and occasional performances—lack the necessary knowledge of rhythm and the philosophical depth of music. Today, in the world, sometimes performers are not even aware of the meanings of the words they sing. For instance, when singing Persian, Arabic, or foreign language songs, they might memorise them without understanding their meanings, performing purely for entertainment, devoid of any true passion or understanding, thereby failing to connect with their audience at a spiritual level.

A singer or instrumentalist must also be aware of certain psychological and social factors to fully comprehend the context and characteristics of the time, place, and the people they perform for. Children, women, youth, and even animals require their own specific melodies, just as time, place, and other characteristics demand their appropriate musical tone.

In the past, whenever a musician wanted to test the skills and ability of a person, they would perform tarkib-khani. It is similar to a poetic duel, where one singer performs and then falls silent, while the other must continue. Sometimes, the first singer would venture into distant corners, narrow and winding alleyways, where others would be lost. Thus, true participation in these corners is challenging, and only those who truly understand the modes and scales can engage in them. Those who are not familiar with these modes may hesitate to mix them and fail to progress.

The Number of Dastgahs

Regarding the number of Persian Maqamat, which is generally twelve (though sometimes fewer or more), much has been discussed. None of these schemes are fundamentally complete, and the number or arrangement of them is empirical. The precedence of one mode over another is subjective and has no logical foundation. Therefore, both the number of Maqamat and their order is based on personal preference. However, when aiming to understand the history and evolution of these modes, approximate numbers and sequences can be applied. For example, one might wonder which mode came into existence first or which was the most prominent.

The number of modes is not limited to the ones mentioned. Anyone with sufficient skill can create new modes, just as they can discover them. The count of these modes is empirical and does not have a logical boundary. Modes can grow based on expertise, as there are many harmonics in nature. For example, the voice of Imam Hassan (peace be upon him) or the voice of David (peace be upon him) was considered unique. In this respect, one can understand why water bearers were mesmerised by Imam Hassan’s voice. This attraction was not merely due to the pleasant tone, but because of the purity of his soul and the uniqueness of his sound. Passersby in Medina would hear a voice unlike any other and would be captivated by it.

The Importance of Understanding Dastgahs

As previously mentioned, sound consists of numerous notes that combine to form words, much like the alphabet. Identifying these notes unlocks the meaning of the speaker’s heart.

We will further explore the impact of sound, melody, and rhythm in the Quranic verses and various supplications to illustrate how knowledge of musical modes is essential in understanding their influence on the soul and mind. Sound and melody are divine gifts bestowed upon humanity and are present in every aspect of creation. For example, the Surah Al-Fatiha in the Quran has a musical mode, and certain poems can be recited using it.

In prayers and in the Sahifa Sajjadiya, there are modes that carry a spiritual rhythm! Music is a universal and natural language that the mind intuitively yearns for. For spiritual growth, one requires a degree of music, provided it adheres to religious boundaries.

The Musical Tones of the Quran

The Quran, the complete and divine book, contains all types of musical modes. These modes are unique to the Quran. A music scholar reflecting upon the verses of the Quran would find it entirely musical, and they might even believe they are holding a musical manuscript.

The Quranic language is not merely a linguistic expression; it is a divine sound that resonates with the essence of creation itself. When recited in the correct musical mode, the Quran has a profound impact, even on those who do not understand the Arabic language.

If someone is knowledgeable in sound studies, they can perceive the unique sound of the Quranic verses. This divine sound was passed from Gabriel to the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), and it embodies a heavenly and sacred essence.

The imams, especially Imam Sajad (peace be upon him), recited the Quran in such a beautiful and captivating manner that listeners often fainted. Even water carriers, hearing the heavenly and enchanting tone of his recitation, would lose consciousness in the heat, captivated by its divine beauty.

When reciting the Quran, it is vital to use the correct tone for the context, such as reciting verses of mercy with a gentle and loving tone, while verses of wrath should be recited with more gravitas. This sensitivity to the emotional content of the Quran is essential for a proper recitation that resonates with its divine message.

The Quran is a book of musical spirituality. The music of the Quran requires discovery and is not bound to a particular language. Regardless of the reader’s native tongue, the melodies of the Quran impact all listeners on a profound level, demonstrating that music transcends language, creating a universal and spiritual experience for all.

The Musical Mode of Du’a Kumayl

When Imam Ali (A.S.) encounters Kumayl, he teaches him the Du’a of Khidr, which became widely known as Du’a Kumayl. This prayer is often recited by many contemporary mourners in a style resembling that of Rumi’s poetry. However, Du’a Kumayl has its own distinct musical mode. When recited in its proper mode, it captivates and mesmerizes listeners. Those who recite this prayer, however, often do not use its unique musical mode, and as a result, they may add poetry or other forms of lamentation in an attempt to move people to tears. But if the prayer is recited according to its original style, it does not require additional elegies, poetry, or mournful storytelling. The emotional intensity, sorrow, and love embedded in the prayer are enough to affect anyone, even those who may not fully understand its meaning. These emotions alone nourish the soul, even if the person does not grasp its deeper structure.

The Musical Mode of the Mystic Prayers and the Sahifah Sajjadiyyah

Imam Ali Zayn al-Abidin (A.S.) uses unique musical modes in his mystic prayers, particularly in the Sahifah Sajjadiyyah. If Imam Ali Zayn al-Abidin had not lived a life filled with love and purity during the forty years after the tragedy of Karbala, he would not have been able to endure the immense loneliness, suffering, and calamities resulting from such a tragic event. His endurance is a direct consequence of the prayerful love he expressed in the Sahifah Sajjadiyyah.

We may never know exactly how Imam Zayn al-Abidin recited these prayers, but such truths are clear. The prophets and saints had their souls nourished by such divine truths, and their minimal consumption of worldly sustenance was due to their spiritual nourishment. This nourishment, made of divine sound and filled with knowledge and heavenly perfection, was their true food.

In the musical mode of Mahur, one can sing poetry that evokes the names of God and reminds listeners of both Heaven and Hell. This can merge the heart with the divine and free the soul from worldly sorrow, while drawing it toward noble actions. Sometimes, hearing a melody that invokes the heavenly realm can make the hairs on the listener’s body stand on end, causing the heart to tremble and the desire to unite with the divine to intensify.

The sound in the Sahifah Sajjadiyyah is much more present and significant than that in the Nahj al-Balagha or other works, which mainly address political events and people of that time. The Sahifah Sajjadiyyah does not address the public but instead converses directly with God, reflecting the state of oneness and divine unity. At times, Imam Ali Zayn al-Abidin (A.S.) even refers to himself as “the least of the least” (Sahifah Sajjadiyyah, p. 226, Du’a of Arafah), and at other times, he considers himself a sinner. The language in these prayers is of the highest spiritual caliber. If God grants us the ability, we will one day analyze the modes present in the Sahifah Sajjadiyyah and explore its rising and falling tones, leading us, like the water carriers, to be enchanted and bewildered by its beauty. The Sahifah Sajjadiyyah is filled with profound wisdom, hidden secrets, and immense political strength, all of which have been vividly expressed by Imam Ali Zayn al-Abidin. Unlike the sections of Nahj al-Balagha, where Imam Ali (A.S.) spoke to the people, disclosing little of his infinite wisdom for their sake, the Sahifah Sajjadiyyah is a book of divine love, pain, and devotion. It portrays the hardships of his time with great clarity. Even though it contains political insights, the prayers themselves are profound and are not aimed at political agitation, as is the case in Nahj al-Balagha.

The Sahifah Sajjadiyyah is a gathering place for love and the murmurs of the lovers’ souls, which have left many mystics and lovers in awe and wonder. Imam Ali Zayn al-Abidin (A.S.), much like Imam Baqir and Imam Sadiq (A.S.), did not sit on the teaching chair in the same way as Imam Ali (A.S.) did in the battlefield or when delivering sermons of divine pain.

A Narration Regarding the Beautiful Voice of Imam Zayn al-Abidin (A.S.)

Imam Reza (A.S.) narrates: “When Imam Zayn al-Abidin (A.S.) recited the Quran, sometimes those who passed by were overwhelmed by the beauty of his voice. If the Imam wanted to display the full beauty of his voice, no one could bear it.”

A narrator asks, “Didn’t the Prophet (PBUH) raise his voice during prayer or Quran recitation?” Imam Reza (A.S.) responds: “The Prophet (PBUH) would raise his voice to a level that was bearable for the people who were behind him.”

The term shi’a in this narration indicates that if Imam Zayn al-Abidin had added even a slight trill to his recitation, no one would have been able to bear it. This recalls the sound of the trumpet on the Day of Judgment, as the Quran says: “And the Trumpet will be blown, and all who are in the heavens and on the earth will fall unconscious, except for whom Allah wills” (Surah Az-Zumar, 39:68).

What we have heard about the trumpet is mostly associated with fear, but this is not accurate. The sound of Israfil (the angel who blows the trumpet) is said to be one of the most beautiful sounds. In the context of the narration of Mufazzal, we will explore how the voices of the saints were so beautiful that they would make people faint, and even a slight embellishment of their recitation could cause them to lose their lives. Those who are accustomed to the delights of food can appreciate a fine meal, but the beauty of a sound that overwhelms the soul is not easily understood.

Sound and Voice as the Nourishment of the Heart

Sound and voice serve as the nourishment for the soul. Therefore, a prayer that is recited without the proper intonation, rhythm, and melody tarnishes the heart and distances it from this spiritual nourishment, making it burdensome and unpleasant to the soul. A prayer that is devoid of the specific rhythm and melody, much like the mumbling of the Jews when reciting the Torah, does not embody the true faith of Islam. It is for this reason that the recommendation to recite the prayer with proper rhythm (Tartil) is emphasised. Observing this practice brings tranquility to the person and allows them to direct their focus towards the Divine, offering their heart to the Beloved and seeking the sight of the Beloved. However, the one who regards their prayer as a mere task of pursuit and escape, who rushes through every act of prayer – avoiding every remembrance and preferring to complete the actions of standing, bowing, prostration, and the final salutation as quickly as possible – cannot truly connect with the Divine or pray in a manner that conveys love and devotion.

Prayer is accompanied by music and melody. Even if one does not understand the meaning of the prayer, they can still experience its musical effects when recited correctly. When someone recites the prayer properly, it aligns and balances their digestive system, much like eating a pomegranate that purifies the blood. Similarly, prayer purifies the temperament, blood, nerves, soul, and mind. Reciting the prayer with calmness is very effective in alleviating nervous disorders. Just as the proper tuning of an engine and its carburettor ensures smooth operation, reciting the prayer properly ensures that the person remains unburdened by self-criticism. As it is narrated: “Fast and you will be healthy,” this is not specific to fasting but also applies to prayer, as it brings about health. The person who recites the Qur’an and prays with rhythm and attention: “And recite the Qur’an in slow, measured rhythmic tones” (Qur’an 73:4) will remain healthy and will not suffer from tension, anxiety, or nervous breakdowns. The one who prays without rhythm and attention to the musicality of it is deprived of these beneficial effects. The Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) says: “Pray as you have seen me pray,” meaning that one should recite the prayer with the same melody, tone, and language as the Prophet, without deviating from the Qur’anic language, so as to benefit from its linguistic effects. Prayer and the Qur’an only have their full effect when recited with their own inherent rhythm, even if the meaning is not understood. The Qur’an and prayer are the property of the wise, and they exert their effects regardless of comprehension. Neglecting sound and voice and failing to benefit from them in the spiritual realm leads to confusion and nervous disorders.

If worshippers did not view prayer as a mere burden and instead upheld its rhythm and melody, they would prefer an imam who elongates the prayer, as it would foster a deeper connection. However, since the true essence of prayer is often neglected, few worshippers remain to appreciate its deeper meanings.

Music and Battle Chants in Early Islam

Battle chants, known as “Rajaz” in Arabic, are military melodies that Islam utilised effectively. These chants were often crucial in boosting the morale of soldiers and weakening the spirit of the enemy. During the early battles of Islam, the disbelievers would chant: “’Ala Hubal!” (“O Hubal!”), to which the Muslims would respond: “Allah is the Most High and the Most Great.” These two phrases together form 16 musical notes. The disbelievers would chant: “Indeed, we have Al-‘Uzza, and you have no god,” to which the Muslims would reply: “Allah is our Master, and you have no Master.” This reply, forming 12 notes, was an eloquent counter, placing Allah at the forefront of their chant, in contrast to the disbelievers who placed their idol “Al-‘Uzza” before their own names.

This chant, rooted in the Qur’an’s verse: “That is because Allah is the Protector of those who have believed, and the disbelievers have no protector” (Qur’an 47:11), demonstrates the cultural difference between Islam and disbelief. The disbelievers elevated their idols, but the Muslims always placed Allah at the forefront.

The beauty of the chanting is also apparent in the day of Ashura, where battle cries were sung with distinct musical modes. Even the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) once answered a question about fasting with a rhythm and tone that matched the specific dialect of the questioner, acknowledging the significance of rhythm in speech.

Intellectual and Divine Sound

Earlier, we discussed the rational sound. The sound of intellect brings one closer to the Divine truth. The Prophets and saints, in their prayers, supplications, and recitations of the Qur’an, sought to achieve the highest form of sound – the divine sound. We believe that time and space did not grant the saints the opportunity to fully express this truth, nor did they find the right disciples to convey it. They did not have the time or circumstances to reveal these secrets. One cannot believe that Islam disregarded the concept of rational music – on the contrary, the absence of opportunity prevented its revelation. The teachings of the saints were not adequately communicated, as many were prevented from openly sharing such knowledge.

Every action that produces sound follows a particular system or mode. Even the sound of footsteps as one walks has its own unique musical mode. Philosophers have discovered some of the modes and notes of music, but many scholars, due to political restrictions, issued fatwas prohibiting music, closing the doors to its full exploration. Natural sounds, such as those produced by birds or the wind, all have their own unique melodies and notes, though most of these remain undiscovered.

The Role of Sound in Our Lives

Sound and voice are an undeniable truth, acting as nourishment for the soul and mind. Yet, much like the senses of sight and smell, they require a careful understanding to harness their full potential. Sadly, in today’s world, only the “mouth” remains open to this nourishment. It is essential that we reconnect with these sensory experiences, as they offer a much deeper form of nourishment, akin to the way the saints would derive energy from hearing spiritual sounds, rather than simply from physical food.

The Sound of the Heart and Divine Harmony

The sound, as understood in the context of spiritual nourishment, is not merely a physical phenomenon but an intellectual and emotional one that resonates with the heart. The heart itself has a rhythm, a melody that responds to the divine symphony. Just as an instrument tuned to perfection produces harmonious notes, a soul attuned to the divine produces a harmonious connection to the universe. In Islamic teachings, prayer (Salah) is not only a physical act but also an engagement of the soul with God. The rhythm of the prayer, the sound of the recitations, and the melody of the words are not separate from the act of worship but integral to it. A prayer that is recited with attention to its sound and rhythm resonates deeply within the heart, allowing the worshipper to align with the divine order.

Thus, the sound of prayer serves a purpose far beyond mere repetition. It is through this sound, in its rhythmic and melodious form, that the worshipper is guided to the path of spiritual tranquillity and intellectual clarity. The act of prayer, when approached with this understanding, transforms from a mere ritual into an instrument for the purification and refinement of the self. This is why those who abandon the rhythmic recitation of prayer or engage in it carelessly fail to experience the fullness of its benefits.

The connection between sound and the soul is also reflected in the concept of ‘Tartil’ (proper recitation). The Qur’an itself instructs us to recite in a way that brings harmony, “And recite the Qur’an in slow, measured rhythmic tones” (Qur’an 73:4). This guidance highlights the importance of rhythm and melody in spiritual practice. It is not merely an aesthetic choice but a means of drawing closer to God, an act that aligns the physical and spiritual realms. The Qur’an, through its divine structure and rhythm, becomes a form of spiritual nourishment, promoting intellectual clarity, emotional balance, and physical well-being.

The Role of Music in the Prophet’s Life

The significance of sound in Islam is also exemplified in the life of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). He, too, understood the power of sound as an essential component of faith. His method of prayer was not only a demonstration of physical actions but a manifestation of divine rhythm, where the words spoken were delivered with a cadence that resonated with the soul. This is evident in the various narrations describing his prayer, where it is said that his recitations were full of deep reflection, every word articulated with precision and care, embodying a divine rhythm that captured the hearts of his followers.

In addition, the Prophet’s use of sound extended beyond the formal acts of worship. His teachings and sermons were often delivered in a way that engaged the auditory faculties of the listeners. The Prophet’s voice was described as being both melodious and impactful, resonating with the hearts of those who listened, stirring their emotions and guiding them towards righteousness. This exemplifies the profound role that sound and voice played not only in spiritual practices but also in the transmission of knowledge.

The Importance of Sound in Healing and Psychological Well-being

The effects of sound on the body and mind extend beyond the spiritual. Scientific studies have shown that music and rhythmic sounds have profound effects on the psychological and physiological well-being of individuals. In the Islamic tradition, the power of sound and rhythm is acknowledged not only for its ability to facilitate spiritual elevation but also for its healing qualities. The recitation of the Qur’an, especially when performed with the proper rhythm and melody, has been known to have a soothing and calming effect on the mind and body.

The concept of sound healing is reflected in the well-being that prayer and Qur’anic recitation bring to the individual. Just as a well-composed piece of music can calm a troubled mind, the rhythmic recitation of the Qur’an can alleviate stress, anxiety, and other psychological ailments. This connection between sound and mental health highlights the holistic nature of Islam, which recognises the interconnection of the body, mind, and soul.

Conclusion: Rediscovering the Divine Sound

In conclusion, the profound connection between sound, voice, and spirituality in Islam offers a deeper understanding of the practice of prayer. Sound, when properly tuned to the rhythm and melody of the Qur’anic recitation, serves as a powerful tool for spiritual elevation, emotional healing, and intellectual clarity. The neglect of this dimension of prayer leads to a shallow connection with the divine, whereas a proper engagement with the rhythm and sound of prayer fosters a deeper and more meaningful connection to the Creator.

It is essential to recognise that the benefits of sound in Islamic worship extend beyond mere ritualistic practice. Sound, in its most divine form, aligns the individual with the universal truths and serves as nourishment for the soul. The proper recitation of prayer, the attention to rhythm, and the melodic tones of the Qur’an are not just aesthetic choices but essential elements that lead the worshipper towards the path of spiritual purification, psychological well-being, and intellectual enlightenment. In this light, the sound of prayer becomes not only a form of worship but a conduit for achieving harmony within oneself and with the divine order.

Sound and Voice: A Material Phenomenon

The sound and voice commonly recognised and utilised by musicians are material phenomena. Sound and voice are physical entities, consisting of waves, rhythms, compositions, and cadences. In music and song, there is no immaterial aspect.

Sound and voice are inherently associated with waves, rhythm, and composition, yet they are distinct from words, as words and expressions do not play a role in them, nor do they depend on the articulation of letters. Sound and voice are often accompanied by emotional states such as joy, sorrow, destruction, and deception, which make the sound appear more imaginary. As a material phenomenon, sound cannot be dissociated from its waves. It should be noted that the heavenly calls, revelation, and spiritual sounds are not part of this discussion.

The Four Connections of Sound

Sound and voice can have three inherent connections: the wave connection, the verbal connection, and the emotional connection. A fourth connection exists that is incidental. Heat, cold, time, space, speed, slowness, hardness, softness, beauty, ugliness, objects, and colours are all incidental connections to sound. The sound in a garden differs from that in a bath, and the sound in a house differs from that in a street. These factors do not constitute the sound itself, but they influence both the performer and the listener, conveying this impact along with the sound. This phenomenon is evident in the enchanting nature of song and music.

Each of the four connections mentioned — wave connection, verbal connection, emotional connection, and incidental connection — also exists in musical instruments. For instance, in the tar or the tombak, the wave connection causes motion. Just as sound emanates from the throat, voice also emerges from instruments like the trumpet, as blowing depends on a different exit than the mouth. The violin or the reed instrument each has its own technique and “language,” and when waves are produced in them, they create sound. This argument could be approached from another perspective: since the meaning of words is conventional, it can be said that whether the sound is emitted through the vocal apparatus or a mechanical device, both are still considered to be words. The difference lies not in the words, but in the apparatus; for example, the sound of a reed may issue from the mouth of the instrument, while that of a pipe emanates from a human mouth. Both are conventional in meaning. While the word denotes a verbal sound, the rhythm provides a non-verbal intonation. However, the meaning in both cases remains the same.

Both the reed sound and the windpipe sound are accompanied by waves, words, and meanings. The difference lies in the fact that the reed’s meaning is a non-verbal convention, whereas the windpipe’s meaning is verbal. The emotional connection is also present in instruments. For example, different types of reeds have a different emotional tone, with each producing a unique atmosphere depending on the conditions.

The fourth connection is the temporal and spatial context, as well as other situational aspects that influence the instrument’s sound. For example, the tar has a different tone in one location than in another. Similarly, the instrument may sound differently when played with a finger compared to when played with a ring.

Listener’s Varying Conditions

Just as the performer and the instrument undergo various states due to the different connections, the listener also experiences varying conditions. Personal characteristics, motivations, age, health, and mental state influence how a listener perceives music. As a result, different listeners might react to the same piece of music differently. A particular composition might be suitable for one person in solitude, but inappropriate for them in a social setting.

In some cases, the ultimate aim of listening to music or song may be imagination. At times, it might elevate the spirit, reaching celestial realms; yet, in all instances, the soul remains the primary subject. Sound and voice impact the soul, either corrupting or inspiring it toward goodness.

The concept of song and music must be understood in all its nuances, for the nature of music can describe both sound and composition. “Song” refers to a harmonious, melodic voice, while “music” refers to a melodius flow of notes, rhythms, and vibrations. Sound and music arise from compositions and rhythms. As mentioned earlier, a composition involves the arrangement of notes, while rhythm ties these compositions together. Sometimes notes link to one another in a sequence called “taqri’,” while other times, a note is given and then taken, known as “taqli’.” These phenomena can be exemplified by sounds like chirping and twitting, where sound moves through the air to manifest.

In sound, apart from composition, there are elements like striking, cutting, detaching, slowing down, thickening, and intensifying. Music is most often linked to harmonic sound. The nature of the sound can be both melodic and exciting, whether it is a natural or external sound. Natural sounds come in two categories: wild and non-wild. Wild sounds include those of animals, insects, and environmental factors, such as the sound of water or the chirping of birds. For example, a mosquito’s delicate sting can pierce the skin like a needle, whether accompanied by a tone or not.

Understanding Sound and Voice: Instruments, Rhythm, Pitch, and Emotion

To fully grasp sound and voice, including the instruments, rhythm, pitch, emotions, and responses they evoke, one must consider all these elements together in order to understand the nuanced rules that govern each component. The scope and range of sound are determined by aspects such as pitch, repetition, tone, and volume, each reflecting a mix of unity and diversity. The unity refers to the sound itself, while the diversity encompasses the variations in pitch, rhythm, volume, and other traits.

The driving force behind sound and voice is love and art. Love serves as the cause, while art is the means by which the voice is produced. Sound, voice, and song are often referred to as “silent speech” or “creative expression.”

The sounds of the nightingale and sparrow, although they share similar physical characteristics, differ in pitch and tone. If one becomes familiar with their sound, one can also understand their speech, and the “language of birds” can be learned. Earlier, we mentioned that the “language of birds” does not only refer to the communication of birds but includes that of all animals, as well as other natural phenomena, such as wind, light, and heat. Different objects and materials, such as stones or metal, produce distinct sounds when they collide. Humans, being beings of higher intellect, can develop their own acquired and scientific voice, thus acquiring knowledge about all types of sound.

Effects of Different Modes

Proving the effects of music, many of which are abstract, is not always straightforward. These effects, being intangible, require extensive study and research to validate. Unlike material phenomena that are observable through the senses, the effects of music are more complex to demonstrate and require experimentation and empirical evidence to confirm. The assertions made in religious texts regarding music and song are intelligible and verifiable, even if modern humans may not yet possess the tools to prove them, but future generations may succeed in doing so. Here, we are discussing the general effects of modes and scales.

Each musical mode has a distinct impact. For instance, the Esfahan mode has a delicate and joyful effect, while modes like Hijaz and Hosseini evoke excitement. Other modes like Shushtari and Dashti may bring about sorrow and sadness, although there are some lively sections within these modes. Zabol and Chahargah bring about courage and strength. Similarly, each mode has its unique characteristics.

Some individuals prefer songs, while others are more drawn to melodies. Women are better suited for singing songs, while men are more inclined towards classical vocal performances. Bass voices are typically more suited to songs, while high-pitched voices excel in melodic singing.

Individual preferences for modes are also influenced by their temperament. For example, people with delicate temperaments tend to favour modes like Segah and Esfahan, while those with coarser temperaments gravitate toward modes like Chahargah and Zabol.

It is also possible for someone to perform a mode in a non-standard way, omitting certain sections or integrating pieces from other modes. This practice depends on the performer’s taste, the time and place, and the circumstances surrounding the performance.

Music and poetry are closely related, and the changes in pitch, dynamics, and tempo are ultimately linked to movement and stillness. A singer can create extraordinary effects by combining and modulating their voice, producing a magical or enchanting experience for the audience.

Sound Therapy

Sound, voice, song, and music are not only sustenance but also have therapeutic properties. They can be used as remedies, calming agents, or stimulants, depending on the need. Food and medicine are distinct, with medicine prescribed for those who are ill.

Although music arises naturally and can be beneficial to the nature of individuals, modern societies approach it like medicine, carefully considering appropriate doses and avoiding excess. Overuse or improper application can lead to psychological instability, much like any other drug. It is crucial for music’s therapeutic qualities to be used judiciously, and they should be prescribed by qualified mental health professionals or religious scholars. Unauthorized use can be harmful, and its benefits should only be reaped with the right dosage and care.

History of Music Therapy

The works of philosophers such as Al-Farabi and Avicenna (Ibn Sina) are central in the history of music therapy. These prominent Shiite scholars argued that musical modes have a profound connection to the human psyche and can serve as remedies for mental illnesses. Through the use of music, many weaknesses, anxieties, or obsessions can be treated. Those suffering from insomnia, for example, can be soothed to sleep by listening to gentle sounds, and even the sound of a ticking clock can provide comfort.

A person performing a song in public can inspire listeners, and similarly, artists and musicians in public performances can create an environment conducive to healing and positivity. The public impact of music on society is far-reaching, with the potential to heal individuals and affect entire communities. As such, music’s role in society is one of social cohesion, cultural advancement, and emotional well-being.

Analytical History of Music in Islam

The study of music is one of today’s complex sciences. Just as Aristotle, with keen observation of the spoken and written relations of people, discovered logical propositions, the tools of music, its systems, and modes have been shaped through the study and thought of sages. These systems, modes, and scales have been derived from nature and dialects, evolving over time, becoming more advanced and complex. It can be said fairly that the science of music today is one of the most advanced human sciences.

Music is the science of sound and voice, whether created by breath, instruments, or the pleasant sounds of nature. The soothing and calming sound of flowing water, the delightful and intoxicated chirping of a nightingale, the sorrowful lament of the wind on a poplar tree, the coolness of the dawn breeze, and the freshness of the morning breeze, all possess their own unique music. One can listen to the mournful cry and the sorrowful sigh of the wind on the poplar tree and the sound of the branches and leaves, gaining peace of mind through its sadness. Just as one might, like the world of imperialism, turn musical instruments and sounds into a deadly poison, gently and cunningly pouring it into the ears of today’s human soul, enslaving and deceiving him.

The sound of revelation and divine voice is one of the mysteries of existence. Sound and voice are profound truths that humanity has yet to fully grasp, and they have not been able to learn them from the divine prophets, peace be upon them—voices that the prophets used to polish their hearts and cultivate love for God.

Unfortunately, throughout history, the neglect and indifference of the people of truth to the world of politics, or the naïveté of many masses, have often allowed the leaders of falsehood to dominate various matters. Today, economics, politics, music, and any other effective tools are in the hands of the enemies, while Muslims have been disarmed and have lost many affairs. The foreign invaders, distanced from religion, reject these matters in widespread propaganda but draw them to themselves and become the masters of the political arena. Seeing them, and with the departure of the people of truth, the meanings of words are forgotten, making politics synonymous with trickery and deception.

When politics is taken away from the hands of the divine authorities, this is the expected result. When love was taken away from Joseph, one must search for its fallen form in Layla and Majnun, Shirin and Farhad, and Khosrow and Shirin. Music also shares the same fate. The sound that could have been devotional and divine has fallen into the hands of the vulgar and corrupt, and they have so dominated it that it can no longer be easily freed from their grasp. Such misfortunes highlight the pressing necessity of contemporary research in music theory from a jurisprudential perspective.

The topic of music has been absent from theological discussions for several hundred years, and religious scholars have not paid attention to it. Consequently, this topic has often been subject to extremes and has not been studied comprehensively until now. Only isolated writings exist on the subject, but they lack a consistent, clear, and persuasive expression, and most of the authors of these works have little understanding of music, only approaching it conceptually and verbally. Especially since music and singing have never been far from the reach of political figures. Some scholars, due to the sanctity of their own nature, completely avoided it, while others who delved into researching and learning this science were often accused and condemned without sufficient reasoning or evidence, and accusations were cast upon them.

Singing and common music are linked to the human soul, and they are of no use to those who have transcended the worldly realms and positions. The joy of music for them belongs to a different realm, which is why the perfected saints of God do not use such tools. They ascend in higher dimensions, but for those immersed in earthly matters, the presence of stimulants and soul-soothers is necessary to bring them balance.

What is essential is to avoid excess and deficiency in the use of music. Those who indulge too much in these matters weaken and become fragile. With the slightest disturbance or anxiety, they collapse, as their souls become hypersensitive and fragile, like hands freshly out of a hot bath. A musician who plays instruments like the violin or harp, over time, becomes highly sensitive and fragile, unable to tolerate even the slightest criticism or adversity.

Singing and music can either bring a person closer to truth or distance them from it. Identifying the right music, and discerning what brings one closer or takes them further away, depends on religious guidelines, as the sacred text has outlined everything that brings us closer to heaven and farther from hell, one of which is singing. Thus, it is crucial to be aware of this and avoid overlooking it. Some psychologists claim that music improves the quality of work, alleviates sadness, brings joy, alleviates loneliness, prolongs life, and calms the nerves, listing many benefits. However, it must be noted that these benefits apply within limits and cannot be universally applied to all individuals.

Others argue that singing and music are dirty substances, bringing with them disgrace, sin, weakness of will, and frailty of spirit. While the list of such claims is long, it is also incorrect to regard them as absolute truths. These observations pertain only to certain contexts and may not universally apply. Both sides of the debate have presented arguments that are not valid in a general context. Any writings that solely list the benefits of music or exclusively its harms lack scientific value and are nothing more than superficial opinions and biased arguments based on ignorance.

It is not possible to issue a blanket ruling on singing and music. It depends on the individual listener, the context, the excessive or improper use of music, and many other factors. Therefore, the ruling on singing and music is relative, subject to the specifics of the situation. Singing and music come in many forms. Some are beneficial and full of goodness for some, while others are harmful and detrimental for others. One cannot declare music as universally permissible or forbidden; the legal ruling is determined through a complex analysis, guided by scholarly expertise. For a jurist to issue a ruling, they must possess deep knowledge and carefully adhere to principles and rules, basing their conclusions on sacred guidance.

The Necessity of Understanding the History of Music

In this book, we do not focus on the ruling of singing and music; instead, we emphasize the importance of understanding the history and context of music to grasp the ruling properly. It is crucial to understand the topic thoroughly and examine the historical context in which the ruling was issued to understand why something is considered permissible or forbidden. We aim to explore the history of singing and music, as many mystics, philosophers, and poets, due to personal inclinations, considered music permissible. On the other hand, some jurists and theologians, out of anger, loudly proclaimed the absolute prohibition of music. Therefore, we must critically examine the entire history of music, as most of the opinions expressed have been influenced by politics and are not grounded in solid legal reasoning.

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During the Umayyad Caliphate, which lasted nearly a century, the Umayyads launched extensive propaganda campaigns to alter the public’s affection for the Prophet Muhammad’s family, especially for Imam Ali (peace be upon him). As a result, a segment of the Muslim community turned against them, even taking up arms against Imam Ali and martyring him. They desecrated the body of Imam Hasan (peace be upon him), who had been poisoned by the Umayyads, and prevented his burial next to the Prophet Muhammad’s grave, thereby propagating the idea that Imam Hasan had distanced himself from the Prophet’s path.

It was Aisha who led and directed these efforts. During the Prophet’s lifetime, she held the position of supervising the blacksmiths and craftsmen who produced swords for Muslims. Aisha is considered the mastermind behind the coup at Saqifah, and the three caliphs that followed her, Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman, were her disciples. If she had not been infertile, she might have tried to elevate her own son to the caliphate. However, her infertility left a deep wound in her heart, one that fueled her resentment and bitterness toward Lady Fatimah (peace be upon her) and Imam Ali, who, according to the Qur’an, were the “Kawthar” of the Prophet Muhammad, and from whom the Prophet’s lineage continued. This resentment caused Aisha to harbor ill feelings towards them. Abu Bakr and Umar, under Aisha’s support, ascended to the caliphate. Even today, among Sunni Muslims in Saudi Arabia, Aisha is held in higher regard than the caliphs.

Furthermore, Yazid, one of the most unfortunate Umayyad rulers, martyred Imam Hussain (peace be upon him) and his companions in the most brutal and inhumane manner, with them dying of thirst. He also took the family of Imam Hussain captive. He trampled the bodies of the martyrs of Karbala under the hooves of horses and prevented their burial, further distorting the legacy of the Prophet’s family. The Umayyads later martyred Imam Zayn al-Abidin and Imam Muhammad al-Baqir (peace be upon them). Imam Zayn al-Abidin, in his time, had only twenty companions and lived in isolation, thus having no voice but prayer. During this period, even the recitation of the Prophet’s hadith was prohibited.

Arab Musicians and Singers

The first Arab to adopt Iranian and Roman music was a Makki slave named “Saeed ibn Masjah,” who had a fine voice and a love for music. He lived during the late first century AH, at the time when the Umayyads were besieging Mecca under the leadership of Abdullah ibn Zubayr. He composed Persian and Roman songs, adjusting them to Arab tastes. Later, Muslim musicians further developed this art, and as luxury and indulgence among Muslims increased towards the end of the Umayyad and mid-Abbasid periods, music flourished as well.

Musicians, known as “Mughanni,” were men and women who participated in weddings, celebrations, and mourning events, singing in tune with the mood of the occasion. The most famous of them was “Isa ibn Abdullah,” also known as “Tawis,” who was a freed slave.

The Abbasid Dynasty and Music

Under the Abbasid caliphs, Islamic music was based on Iranian music theory. The musical modes and melodies of Iran, which had been harmonized with Arab tastes, replaced the original Arab music, and their music was grounded in Iranian musical traditions.

The most famous musicians of the early Islamic centuries in Iran were those living under the Abbasid caliphate in Baghdad or in the Abbasid territories. They were mostly courtiers and companions of the caliphs, princes, and high-ranking officials of the Abbasid government. Among the most famous of these musicians were Ibrahim ibn Mahān, known as “al-Mawṣili,” and his descendants, as well as “Isḥaq” and “Hammad.”

During the war between the Umayyads and Mansur al-Dawaniqi, Imam Ja’far al-Sadiq (peace be upon him) took the opportunity to teach some of the sciences and religious rulings to his followers. During this time, Imam Ja’far al-Sadiq spoke about the benefits of music and singing, and he declared the earnings of some singers and musicians as permissible. His narration in “Tawhid Mufaddal” on this topic holds particular significance.

Hadiths from Imam Musa al-Kadhim (peace be upon him) prohibit music and singing. In this era, Harun al-Rashid was one of the most infamous caliphs, known for his indulgence. He had beautiful young boys in his court, including a boy named “Sawsan,” whom he kept for his personal pleasure, engaging in acts with him and enjoying his singing.

This account reveals the moral decay of the Abbasid caliphs and their courtiers. In such an environment, it would be unreasonable to expect the Shi’a Imams to declare music and singing as permissible.

Music reached its peak during the reign of the Abbasid caliph al-Ma’mun. To legitimize his actions, al-Ma’mun falsely attributed the permission of music and singing to Imam Ali al-Ridha (peace be upon him). Fearing the influence of Imam Ridha among his followers, al-Ma’mun placed him under surveillance by making him the crown prince and controlling his relationships with his followers. To rival Imam Ridha’s fame, al-Ma’mun supported the translation of Greek philosophy and introduced it into the intellectual culture of the Muslims, aiming to divert their attention from hearing the voice of the infallible Imam.

In the same way, al-Ma’mun promoted various types of songs and instruments as part of this policy. Music during the Umayyad and Abbasid periods was, in essence, a tool of political and cultural imperialism.

For a clearer understanding of this phenomenon, we can draw a parallel with the fatwa issued by Mirza Shirazi against tobacco, which had become a tool of British colonialism. Just as tobacco was used for imperial purposes, so too could the Qur’an or prayer become instruments for achieving the imperialistic goals of oppressive regimes. This is evident from the actions of Muawiya during the battle of Siffin.

If we were to identify rulers who were aware of the virtues of the Shi’a Imams and thus could be considered their conscious enemies, we would only find Muawiya and al-Ma’mun. Although Amr ibn al-As was more knowledgeable than Muawiya, he was still his disciple. One must examine the origins of these figures to understand how they became the antitheses of the Imams.

If the complex issues of authority and its knowledge are reduced merely to superficial acts of mourning, like beating the chest, reciting elegies, or wearing black clothing—without understanding their deeper intellectual implications—the isolation and marginalization of this matter will continue.

During the time of the Infallible Imams (peace be upon them), their isolation and oppression reached its peak, and they were forced into taqiyya (precautionary dissimulation). It is narrated that “taqiyya is my religion and the religion of my ancestors.” Imam Ali (peace be upon him) was so oppressed that a man entered the mosque in front of everyone and insulted him, but Imam Ali remained silent.

After the tragic event of Karbala, the family of the Prophet (peace be upon him) found no joy. Even if a person composed a poem about their virtues, it seemed like they were playing with their own blood. The political oppression and totalitarian regime left no room for freedom or celebration for the Shi’a.

Independence, Grandeur, and Continuity
These individuals, beyond the fact that they naturally possess inferiority, cannot tolerate the power of the rightful authorities and thus isolate them—this is done with commotion and using tools that provoke the emotions of the public, of which music is one of the most significant instruments. The divine grandeur and the authenticity of the rightful authorities expose the smallness and insignificance of the loud and false figures, revealing to all that the partners in all kinds of wrongdoing, and indeed the primary cause of such corruption and the decline of religious societies, as well as the disease and impairment of lives, are these false figures and the leaders who make hollow claims. The characteristic of falsehood is that it is truncated and lacks continuity, unlike truth, which has a continuous and everlasting face; truth is abundant, and its historical lineage is uninterrupted. The masses are entangled in their emotions and sentiments. Thus, they either align with truth or with falsehood. Their alignment is based on the belief that either the side of truth will prevail, or the side of falsehood will dominate. However, their support is determinative; although they themselves neither belong to the realm of truth nor to that of falsehood, their numbers and their shifting orientation toward truth or falsehood alter the balance between the two. The side of falsehood, fully aware of this, seeks to rally the people based on stirring their passions, emotions, and impulses, using tools such as music and song to align them.

The Power of Music and Emotional Manipulation

The most effective tool in this emotional manipulation is music, which serves as a method for arousing public sentiment and inciting them to action. Music is a powerful instrument for stirring the passions of individuals, guiding their emotions in specific directions. It is capable of bypassing the rational faculties, directly reaching the heart and soul. The falsehood that prevails in society is often supported by this emotional upheaval, which music and other forms of art can perpetuate. Such influence is not limited to the masses; even those who hold positions of power and influence can become swayed by this manipulation, finding themselves increasingly disconnected from the truth.

The Distortion of Truth

Those who possess the authority and power of truth must constantly defend against the distortions propagated by these false figures. The struggle between truth and falsehood is not merely a battle of ideas or doctrines but an ongoing war for the hearts and minds of the people. Falsehood can often appear attractive because it is embedded in the emotional, in the ephemeral pleasures of life. Truth, on the other hand, requires patience and perseverance, as it may not always provide immediate gratification. Yet, it remains steadfast and eternal, grounded in the divine and in the principles that guide the moral and spiritual development of individuals and societies.

The Unbroken Line of Truth

Truth, in contrast to falsehood, is unbroken. Its lineage stretches through history, linking past, present, and future in an eternal continuum. It has a rootedness that transcends the whims of time and human distraction. Falsehood, by nature, is fleeting. It is incapable of standing the test of time, as it lacks the fundamental qualities of truth: integrity, continuity, and consistency. This disjunction between the two is what ultimately brings falsehood to its demise, for the masses, eventually discerning the difference, will turn away from that which has no lasting foundation.

The Role of Leadership in Guiding the Masses

Leaders who are faithful to the truth must guide the masses, not only by imparting wisdom but by inspiring them to seek the eternal over the transient. The role of leadership is to establish a deep, lasting connection with the people, drawing them toward values that elevate the human spirit rather than lead it astray. Such leadership is not based on superficial gestures or the manipulation of emotions, but on a deep commitment to truth, justice, and righteousness. It is through this alignment with higher principles that true leaders can inspire a lasting transformation in society.

The Noble Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him and his family) said: “I act according to the revelation, and Ali acts according to its interpretation.” This implies that the Prophet is the expositor, and Ali is the measure. The Prophet establishes the organisational structure of Islam and the Muslim community, while Ali purifies the souls of the believers and tests them in the balance of thought and action, becoming the measure of their worth. The Prophet addresses the outward aspects, and Ali reveals the inward, manifesting the true essence of sincerity to all, ensuring that the wolves of disbelief, who would adorn their appearance and even carry the Qur’an on their spears, do not ambush the truth. Through his actions, the true nature of such deceitful individuals becomes apparent, preventing them from disturbing the Islamic community with their treachery. Although he endured immense suffering—his heart laden with pain, and grief without end—he declared, upon his martyrdom, “I have succeeded by the Lord of the Ka’bah” and proclaimed freedom and salvation. Despite all the pain, his life exemplified the core principles of Islam, setting a clear path for true Muslim identity and guiding humanity toward victory.

The people of Saqifah, unaware, did not realise that Ali (peace be upon him) would reveal their hypocrisy to all. With his silence, he became a lightning bolt that shattered their false claims, and his method of confronting falsehood reached beyond time, teaching how to resist any form of deception or false pretension. His approach instilled in future generations the principles of dealing with oppression and misrepresentation, wrapping these words of truth into practical, tangible examples that would last for centuries. In his efforts to establish these truths, he sacrificed his beloved wife, Fatimah (peace be upon her), and his son, Muhsin.

The role of the simple-minded masses in the establishment of falsehood

The dominance of apparent Islam, led by unjust rulers, over the true Islam, guided by those who hold the rightful divine leadership, is solely due to the naivety of the people. A striking example of this simplicity and superficial understanding is seen when, after the burial of the Noble Prophet, Imam Ali (peace be upon him) hurried to the mosque and, before the gathered crowd—who had either witnessed or heard of the events of Ghadir Khumm and the Prophet’s repeated praise of him—argued for his rightful position and asked for the people’s affirmation of his legitimacy. He asked them, “Why did you pledge allegiance to Abu Bakr and neglect the truth?” The response was, “O Ali, everything you say is correct, and we are aware of it, but you arrived too late. Had you come earlier, we would have pledged allegiance to you.” This demonstrates the lack of discernment among the people of that time, who abandoned the truth simply due to the timing of the events.

When Salman informed Imam Ali of the people’s allegiance to Abu Bakr, Imam Ali (peace be upon him) asked: “Did you recognise the first person who pledged allegiance to Abu Bakr?” Salman replied, “No, but I saw an elderly man with a long beard, leaning on his staff, with a pained forehead. He climbed the pulpit while weeping and said: ‘Praise be to God, who did not allow me to die until I saw you in this place. Now, extend your hand.’” Abu Bakr extended his hand, and the elderly man pledged allegiance, saying: “Today is like the day of Adam.” He then descended the pulpit and left the mosque. Imam Ali (peace be upon him) said, “By God, that elderly man was Satan, who was pleased with the misguidance of the Ummah, and the Prophet had informed me about him long before.” Thus, the Ummah became misguided, and the elite of weak resolve and ignorance followed.

The feebleness of the community’s response allowed the worldly opportunists to rise, gaining courage and audacity to confront Imam Ali (peace be upon him) with challenges. When he questioned them, “What will you do if I do not pledge allegiance?”, they replied, “If you do not pledge allegiance, we will kill you in disgrace and humiliation!” When Imam Ali (peace be upon him) presented his proof and recited the words of the Prophet and the Qur’an, it was Umar who said: “Pledge allegiance, and leave these futile words behind!”

The Final Argument

When the conspirators of Saqifah usurped the rightful leadership of Imam Ali (peace be upon him), he laid down the final argument for all, even for the professed followers. As night fell, Imam Ali (peace be upon him) took his wife, Fatimah (peace be upon her), and their children, Hasan and Husayn (peace be upon them), and went to the homes of all the Emigrants (Muhajirun) and the Helpers (Ansar) to demand his rightful position. However, only forty-four people responded to his call. He instructed them: “Anyone who is ready for action and uprising, let them shave their head and come in the morning.” By morning, only three had come, and Ammar arrived later, making the total number four! The next night, Imam Ali (peace be upon him) went again to see them, and they renewed their commitment to support him. However, the following morning, only the same four individuals remained. The third night, he repeated his action, and once more, only those four showed up. Imam Ali’s (peace be upon him) heart was pained by this abandonment, and he lamented: “May God curse those who abandoned me! If I had had forty righteous companions, I would have defended my right and reclaimed it.”

Thus, after 25 years of isolation, Imam Ali (peace be upon him) accepted leadership at the insistence of the disillusioned people, only to face an elite class who were either corrupt, power-hungry, or ignorant. He was eventually martyred by Ibn Muljam, a fanatic from the Khawarij. His grave remained hidden until the time of Imam Ja’far al-Sadiq (peace be upon him), after which it became a centre for religious teaching and the promotion of true Islamic values.

Imam Ali’s (peace be upon him) Governance and the Role of the Masses

Despite claiming leadership and making it clear to the people, the Imams never sought to take power through violence and conflict. They always stood alongside the people, ensuring that their argument was complete. As Imam Ali (peace be upon him) stated after the murder of Uthman, “By the One who split the seed and created mankind, had the people not rallied around me, and had there not been a covenant from God with the scholars to prevent the satisfaction of the oppressors and the hunger of the oppressed, I would have cast the reins of leadership over its camel’s hump and let it be drowned in the first of its usurpations.” This shows that Imam Ali (peace be upon him) would never have accepted the position of political leadership without the support of the people. This reflects the principle that establishing a government through force and bloodshed is not in the interest of the Ummah, as Islam is meant to revive humanity, not to bring about violence and killing.

Imam Hasan’s (peace be upon him) Peace and the Traitorous Actions of Muawiyah

Imam Hasan (peace be upon him) accepted peace because he saw no other avenue for resolving the conflict. He did so under severe conditions, but Muawiyah soon violated the terms of the agreement, revealing his true nature. After the peace treaty, Imam Hasan (peace be upon him) addressed the people, exposing the corruption of the ruling class and clarifying that his peace was similar to the actions of the Prophet Khidr. He explained that his peace was not out of weakness but for the preservation of the faith and the welfare of his followers.

After Imam Hasan’s martyrdom, Muawiyah adopted a policy of suppression and brutality against the supporters of Imam Ali (peace be upon him). He banned the mentioning of Ali’s name and imposed harsh punishments on anyone who supported the truth. This led to a distorted view of Islam, where those who followed the true path of the Imams were persecuted.

The Systematic Oppression Under Muawiyah’s Rule

Muawiyah ruled with a policy of cruelty and repression against the followers of Imam Ali (peace be upon him), a policy that continued until the year 57 AH. During this time, he sought to erase the true legacy of Islam and discredit the family of the Prophet (peace be upon him). Through his actions, he managed to completely reshape the public perception, ensuring that Ali (peace be upon him) and his followers were vilified, while the supporters of the ruling Umayyad dynasty were glorified. This system of manipulation and oppression led to the destruction of the true Islamic values that had once been upheld by the Prophet’s family.

The Tyrannical Reign of Yazid

After the death of his father, Yazid sought to consolidate his power and secure his rule by pursuing the universal pledge of allegiance, especially from notable figures and tribal leaders. Among all of them, his particular focus was on Imam Hussain (A.S). It was here that Imam Hussain (A.S) remarked: “When Yazid becomes the caliph of the Islamic community, Islam must be bid farewell, and its obituary read.”

When the issue of Yazid’s pledge was raised in Medina, Walid ibn Utbah, the governor of Medina appointed by Muawiya, exerted pressure on Imam Hussain (A.S) by Yazid’s orders. Imam Hussain (A.S) soon realized that the situation had become too constricting and decided to leave the city. After bidding farewell to his grandfather, mother, his oppressed brother, and other family members, he took the hands of his women, children, and companions and left Medina. In the year 60 AH, two nights before the end of the month of Rajab, the caravan of Karbala left Medina heading for Mecca.

When the caravan departed, a great uproar ensued in the city. Both men and women were crying bitterly, expressing their sorrow and begging Imam Hussain (A.S) not to leave and abandon them to the pain of separation. The grief was intense, and it was heartbreaking that, for the sake of worldly power, the custodian of the sacred sanctuary and his entire family were being forced to leave—especially a family like the House of Prophethood, whose rulers claimed to be the protectors of the Prophet. Imam Hussain (A.S), feeling that there was no safe refuge for him alone, saw the whole caravan as being in danger and chose to leave his ancestral home with his relatives and companions.

Throughout human history, no one has experienced such migration, solitude, and injustice in such a difficult and exceptional context. No figure like Imam Hussain (A.S) will bear the burden of suffering, separation, and grief, as he did. His movement revealed the true nature of the seemingly Islamic leadership, exposing its deceitful practices to history. Imam Hussain (A.S) arrived in Mecca less than a week after his departure from Medina, preparing himself politically and socially to face Yazid. Many of the notable figures of the Muslim community had gathered in Mecca, and every day more joined, all of whom were keenly aware of the political events unfolding. Imam Hussain (A.S) took a revealing stance, educating people about the current affairs, unveiling the truth, and introducing himself, while exposing the corrupt rulers.

The Weak-Willed Kufans and the Shift in Leadership

Imam Hussain (A.S) began laying the groundwork and promoting his cause. He sent Muslim ibn Aqil, accompanied by a few others, to Kufa, where the people had been gathering in large numbers at the house of Sulaiman ibn Surad Khazai, a companion of Imam Ali (A.S). They wrote letters, prepared invitations, and sent them to Imam Hussain (A.S) in Mecca, pledging their allegiance. Eventually, around 12,000 letters reached him from Kufa.

Muslim ibn Aqil, after enduring great hardships, entered Kufa where he was accepted by the people, and they pledged allegiance to him. The number of pledges reached 18,000. He continued to report back to Imam Hussain (A.S), and it seemed as though the groundwork for the establishment of truth and the downfall of falsehood was being laid easily. However, when Muslim ibn Aqil was able to gather support and the people of Kufa ignored the governor, Nu’man ibn Bashir, the situation quickly shifted. The governor’s reports to Yazid led to the dispatch of Ubaydullah ibn Ziyad to Kufa, with full authority to quell the revolt and secure Yazid’s rule.

Ibn Ziyad quickly regained control of Kufa, and the situation deteriorated. The support for Imam Hussain (A.S) dwindled as many of the Kufans, in their lack of resolve, abandoned him. This was the fate of a society that was superficial, politically naive, and lacking courage and maturity.

The Sanctity of the Kaaba

In the month of Dhul-Hijjah, Imam Hussain (A.S) donned the pilgrimage attire (ihram) to perform the Hajj like other Muslims. However, on the 8th of Dhul-Hijjah, Umar ibn Sa’ad ibn Abi Sufyan, on Yazid’s orders, entered Mecca with a group of his men under the guise of Hajj, intending to arrest Imam Hussain (A.S). Realizing the situation, Imam Hussain (A.S) changed his intention from Hajj to Umrah to respect the sanctity of the Kaaba and performed the rituals of Umrah.

After delivering a powerful sermon exposing the corruption of the regime, Imam Hussain (A.S) left Mecca for Iraq. Umar ibn Sa’ad sent his brother Yahya to stop him, but Imam Hussain (A.S) continued undeterred. He reached Zubala where he received the news of the betrayal in Kufa, the martyrdom of Muslim ibn Aqil, and the situation of Hani ibn Urwah and Abdullah ibn Yaqtal. He informed his companions about the grave situation and left them with the choice to stay or leave. Many of those who had hoped for worldly gains or lacked certainty quietly deserted him, leaving only the true companions who had complete faith.

Ashura: The Battlefield of Truth and the Defeat of Falsehood

Days passed, and the day of Ashura arrived, bringing with it the confrontation between the forces of truth and falsehood. The forces of falsehood, led by the treacherous Yazid, massacred Imam Hussain (A.S) in the most brutal manner. They mutilated his blessed body, looted his belongings, and desecrated his possessions. They stripped him of his clothes, and in a display of utter cruelty, even disfigured his ring, clothes, and other items.

After the battle, Yazid’s army, under the command of Umar ibn Sa’ad, attacked the tents of the women and children of the family of Prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H), looting everything they could. Imam Zainul Abidin (A.S), the son of Imam Hussain (A.S), was paraded in chains, showing the depth of the cruelty and injustice inflicted upon the family of the Prophet.

The Victory of Truth

However, it was the steadfastness of Imam Zainul Abidin (A.S) and Lady Zaynab (A.S) that revealed the truth. Through their speeches and actions, they exposed the crimes of Yazid and his regime, stripping him of his dignity. The blood of Imam Hussain (A.S), along with the message of truth, nullified the falsehoods spread by Yazid’s regime, and his political downfall began. Imam Zainul Abidin (A.S) and Lady Zaynab (A.S) became the heralds of truth, ensuring that Yazid’s forces were ultimately defeated politically and morally.

The return of the family of Imam Hussain (A.S) to Medina was met with grief, and the people of Medina cut off their support for Yazid. Over time, the perpetrators of the Karbala massacre were brought to justice by the forces of Mukhtar, and the political landscape began to shift.

The Spiritual and Political Legacy of Karbala

The tragedy of Karbala, while deeply heartbreaking, serves as a profound lesson for humanity. The sanctity of Imam Hussain’s stand is not based on sectarian bias but on the universal principles of justice and truth. Karbala exposed the cruelty of false rulers and has made human societies sensitive to the injustices of tyranny. Imam Hussain (A.S) represents the epitome of resistance against oppression, and his martyrdom continues to inspire people in the fight against injustice, even in contemporary times.

The Sahifa Sajjadiya, authored by Imam Zainul Abidin (A.S), offers a comprehensive guide on how to confront falsehood, illustrating the difference between true leaders and deceptive ones. It serves as a beacon for those who seek to fight against injustice and oppression with knowledge and integrity.

In conclusion, the Karbala movement is more than just a historical event—it is an eternal reminder of the power of truth against the forces of oppression. The lessons of Karbala continue to resonate throughout history, encouraging individuals to remain steadfast in the face of tyranny and injustice.

The School of Expectation

The Imams (peace be upon them) placed great emphasis on the concept of “expectation.” “Expectation” is far more significant than “revolution” or “violent upheaval.” After the completion of the period of occultation, the establishment of a just and divine government, led by the Mahdi (may Allah hasten his reappearance), will be realised. During the period of occultation, which is long and drawn out, one must act in accordance with the ideals of a “green expectation,” striving through scientific efforts, spiritual struggles, and tireless, passionate work to prepare the ground for the global uprising of Imam al-Mahdi (may Allah hasten his reappearance). This should demonstrate one’s loyal submission to the divine authority. What will happen in the future does not affect one’s personal responsibility and actions. Expectation is not a state of stagnation or passivity; rather, it articulates the gravity of one’s position and duty in the “greater jihad” of battling one’s own desires and educating the people during the time of the awaited appearance. Every individual must be vigilant, ensuring that they do not fail the test of occultation and do not fall among the ranks of the forces of falsehood.

Occultation is neither a natural phenomenon nor an eternal law of creation. Its cause lies in humanity’s simplistic outlook, its inclination towards corruption, deviation, and the opportunistic actions of hypocrites. To eliminate this, one must engage in a struggle of the soul and social effort, steering oneself and society away from corruption, ignorance, and deceit, and must not remain indifferent to it. Expectation is a school of perseverance, cunning, vigilance, and the “greater jihad.” Armed revolutions, on the other hand, are the “lesser jihad,” provided that the utmost sincerity is maintained. Expectation is a battleground against carnal desires and societal vices. The school of expectation requires individuals who are equipped with the knowledge of responsibility and the ability to discern enemies, those who can recognise the truth, battle falsehood, and fulfil their crucial religious duties. Expectation is the greater jihad because, in addition to self-sacrifice and patience, it requires wisdom, knowledge, piety, and sincerity — attributes that position its followers among the warriors alongside the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) and Imam al-Mahdi (may Allah hasten his reappearance).

Among all phenomena, it is humanity who, due to free will and choice, creates both bitter and sweet memories. These memories, because they are voluntary, carry profound consequences and shape one’s identity for eternity. However, the memory of humanity in the events following the Saqifah (the Saqifah incident and its aftermath) has been bitter, until the sweet era of the awaited messiah will arrive — an era we eagerly await, and for which we long to see the “green expectation” realised.

The Waves of Falsehood and the Occultation: The Alienation of Truth

In this section, we have recounted the history of early Islam and the painful events that followed. The sweet memory that we cherish from the first two centuries of Islam is the enduring culture of Shia Islam, which serves as a roadmap for human thought and action during the era of occultation. Yet, the bitter lesson we have drawn from this history is the ability of the forces of falsehood and human wolves, masquerading as men, to portray themselves as truthful and righteous. They have the capacity to disguise the faces of the divine, sequester spiritually elevated individuals, and diminish those with true power, kingdom, and proximity to the divine. These falsehoods blind the true path to the point that even truth itself becomes questioned, and everything good brings doubt, creating anxiety and obsession in people. This masquerade is orchestrated by those with wealth, power, deceit, and manipulation, who stage this charade for the prosperity of their falsehood.

The Supremacy of Falsehood over Music and Melody

The discussion turns to the history of music and melody, and the reasons why legitimate expressions of joy and music have not emerged in society. The narrative of history from the time of the oppressive Pahlavi regime, under the tyrant Reza Shah, mirrors the earlier stages of Islam, where the very essence of Shia culture stood in opposition to the colonial ambitions of Western powers. Reza Shah, like the Abbasid Caliph Al-Mutawakkil, sought to eradicate the Shia culture, which he saw as an obstacle to the Europeanization of Iran and its detachment from Islamic traditions. Much like how Al-Mutawakkil prohibited the pilgrimage to Imam Hussein (peace be upon him), Reza Shah banned commemorative mourning assemblies for Imam Hussein (peace be upon him), forcing those wishing to express grief for him into secrecy. Despite the oppressive atmosphere, the tears and laments during this period were genuine, as opposed to the display-like performances seen in some of today’s ceremonies.

As a result of the dominance of the forces of falsehood, the realm of music and melody, which could have been a source of light, remained under the control of the forces of oppression. During this time, when religious leaders and speakers often had to curse the true heir of the Prophet, Ali (peace be upon him), the possibility of bringing joyous music or a healthy form of melody into the public domain was near impossible. The false narrative fabricated by the enemies of truth dominated all forms of art, including music, which was used as a tool for manipulation and corruption, preventing its use for righteous purposes.

The Control of Falsehood over Knowledge and Written Texts

The forces of falsehood, particularly during the reign of the Abbasid Caliphs, sought to undermine the authority of the family of the Prophet (peace be upon him). One of their tactics was to promote the translation of Greek philosophical works, which contributed to the spread of knowledge but also extended the influence of Greek philosophy. This movement not only helped expand the Arabic language but also turned it into the global language of various scientific and intellectual fields. While music and musical theory were included in this movement, they were primarily used in the service of political power, rather than the promotion of authentic cultural or spiritual values.

Understanding the Context of the Narrations on Music

During the time of the Imams (peace be upon them), true followers of the Shia were few, and they faced immense pressure from the ruling regimes, which forced them to resort to taqiyyah (dissimulation) and dissimulation in order to protect themselves. They lived in a society where the cultural engineering was in the hands of the Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates, who spread corruption and impurity while leading the masses astray. These sincere followers, who were few in number, had direct access to the Imams and were highly intelligent, familiar with the prevailing cultural norms and terminology used by the Imams (peace be upon them). They did not struggle with ambiguity regarding what constituted “ghina” (music or singing in certain contexts), and their understanding of it was clear. However, it is uncertain whether this understanding has been passed down to us in its entirety.

The issue of “ghina” remains a subject of debate. While it is clear in the narrations that musical instruments were never used for lawful purposes under the oppressive governments, these instruments were used to promote falsehood. The narrations on this matter are primarily contextual, reflecting the oppressive conditions of the time, and should not be taken as absolute prohibitions for all eras.

**The Abbasid were free and openly held musical gatherings and night parties, turning their homes into “Bait al-Ghena.” In contrast, the followers of the Truth and Wilayah were not allowed the smallest meeting, let alone being able to promote their faith using powerful cultural tools, such as establishing a “Bait al-Ghena.” They were pursued through the alleys of Medina and Kufa, or the deserts of Hijaz and Iraq, and figures like Hajar ibn Adi, Maytham, Zararah, and Abd al-Azim were exemplary companions of the Imams, who, for their loyalty to the household of the Prophet, were exiled to the wilderness or forced to live as strangers in their own cities or neighborhoods. How could they, in such conditions, host gatherings of mourning for the martyrdom of the Master of Martyrs or sing joyous songs for the celebration of Ghadir in music styles like Sehgah or Chahargah? They could only pass down the slogan of Ghadir, Karbala, and the light of anticipation of the Imam’s return to their children with great sacrifice, and those who did so were praised and called ‘fortunate.’ We have elaborated the tragic account of the loneliness and oppression of the Ahl al-Bayt in our book “The Knowledge of Life.”

Narrations condemning music, instruments like the lute, harp, and oud, and singing men and women were made because these practices were associated with the forces of falsehood and the ruling system of oppression. These figures, who showed no restraint in sin, would mingle freely and engage in promoting corruption in society, preventing the hearts and minds of the youth from being touched by the sweet breeze of the love and guidance of the Ahl al-Bayt. The aim was to create such fossilized minds in society that they could not even think of visiting the homes of the Imams.

It was a system designed to block access to the purest sources of knowledge and spiritual uplift. They could not gather in official mourning ceremonies, but they were forced into exile and driven into hiding, deprived of the ability to publicly mourn or celebrate the sacred occasions of Islam. The legal pronouncements regarding music were issued under such circumstances, akin to telling the people of a city whose main industry is winemaking, ‘Stop planting, buying, and selling grapes, and destroy the grapevines.’ This is not because grapes are inherently bad, but because their use in winemaking is condemned. However, if, in the future, wine is produced from grapes that have no intoxicating properties and contain beneficial qualities similar to the nutrients in mother’s milk, a legal pronouncement may be made declaring it permissible, even encouraging the cultivation of grapes, since the substance has changed.”

The Specific Nature of the Iranian Soil and its Connection to Governance

The receptiveness to governance varies. Among these, the soil of Iran holds a special place. However, it is not the case that all parts of Iran are the same in their receptiveness to governance. This soil, before the advent of Islam, when the world was small, and even in the time of its expansion, will preserve this characteristic in the future as the earth extends further. The soil of Iran is the cradle of governance, and it will nurture many scholars. The blessings of this soil are indebted to its governance, even though it suffers from the dryness of certain ideas. The governance-oriented nature of Iran’s soil has made even the Zoroastrians and the People of the Book who live there to be oriented towards governance and love. Consequently, it can be said that some individuals, who are considered corrupt or polluted, and who have emigrated or fled from Iran to other countries, are, as mentioned in the narrations, regarded as “oppressed,” and the governance within them has not yet flourished. A free-minded government can train such individuals, bring their internal governance to fruition, and instead of turning them into enemies, gain their friendship. In this way, under the gravitational pull of the system and its financial facilities, the phenomenon of “brain drain” will be reduced.

Khajeh Tusi and the Devastating Era of the Mongol Invasion

The Mongol invasion of Iran created a kind of cultural overthrow for this country and its Shiite scholars. The Mongols in Iran created an event similar to the battle of Ibn Ziyad’s army at Karbala. With their devastating assault, they endangered the cultural identity of this nation. Their attack cast a heavy shadow of despair, lethargy, stagnation, and slowness upon the hearts of the Iranian community. We are not seeking to enumerate and examine the brutalities of this tribe. They burned books and destroyed many of the country’s learned figures, but the persistent and tireless resistance of the Shiite scholars—exemplified by Khajeh Tusi—enabled the revival and reclamation of what had been lost. The Mongols left nothing behind of the books that had been written and translated by Iranian scholars in the golden centuries of Islam, nor did they spare the libraries, many of which were set ablaze. The Mongol dominance, with its massacres, looting, and corruption, brought about by the savage tribe’s rule over the people of Iran, killed the spirit of joy, hope, and enthusiasm, replacing them with despair and melancholia. In order to alleviate their sufferings and console their hearts and those of their children, Iranians renounced the world and became indifferent to all things of it. They considered this world to be of no value, handed over control to chance, and fell prey to superstition. Gradually, signs of decay and destruction became evident in all matters.

Amid this suffocating atmosphere, a remarkable figure known as Khajeh Nasir al-Din Tusi emerged, a scholar and philosopher, who influenced the Mongol court and pacified them.

Khajeh Nasir al-Din Tusi and His Role in the Mongol Era

Khajeh Nasir al-Din Tusi was a towering figure in the field of wisdom who managed to tame the savage hearts of the Mongol rulers, encouraging them to abandon conquest and instead pursue the acquisition of knowledge and the promotion of various sciences. Khajeh Nasir al-Din Tusi (597–672 AH) was a great Iranian philosopher, mathematician, and astronomer. He was a shrewd, wise, and virtuous scholar, widely renowned for his character and generosity. He is considered the greatest scholar after Farabi and Avicenna and appeared during the dark, tumultuous times of the Mongol invasion, when he took the torch of knowledge and made efforts to assist other scholars and intellectuals. He collected many valuable books, preventing their loss.

Among Khajeh’s works is “Mi’yar al-Ash’ar,” which explains prosody and rhyme in Persian, and “Kanz al-Tuhaf,” a treatise on music.

Mawlana (Rumi) and the Rhythmic Instruments of Music

After Khajeh Tusi, “Muhammad Balkhi,” known as “Mawlana” (604–672 AH), a jurist, theologian, and leader of the Sunni Sufi tradition, emerged. The famous story of Mawlana’s encounter with Shams Tabrizi in 642 AH and his deep attachment to him is well known. The absence of Shams and the fire of longing that burned in Mawlana’s soul transformed him completely. His “Divan-e-Shams,” filled with passion and intense emotional expression, is a collection of ghazals that reflect the rhythm and melodies of music, often composed in a state of mystical ecstasy.

It is said that Mawlana was the spiritual guide for both the common people and the elite for thirty years. While teaching in the city of Konya, except for Qonawi, a rival of his who was a disciple of Ibn Arabi, all other religious scholars attended his lessons. Despite this, Mawlana requested that Qonawi perform the funeral prayers over him. Qonawi, who considered his own teacher, Ibn Arabi, to be superior in mysticism, initially did not show interest in Mawlana. Despite this, Mawlana was so mesmerised by Shams that he saw no equal in Shams. The mystical nature of Mawlana’s poetry and philosophy, while also grounded in a profound understanding of spirituality, reflects the intense emotional and social upheaval of the time.

Conclusion and Contemporary Implications

In reviewing the lives of these great scholars who mastered music in their time, we observe that they had no other tools than poetry and music to defend their beliefs and alleviate the great suffering their people endured. Their contributions to both spiritual and intellectual thought continue to be a testament to their resilience in the face of hardship.

The issue of music and singing, referred to as ghina, has a deeply ingrained presence in Islamic jurisprudence, where scholars have long debated its permissibility. Not only did this matter carry significant weight in the past, but it was also a subject of great concern during the reign of the infamous Reza Shah, when people would retreat to basements, close doors, and cover windows in an effort to mourn the loss of their Lord, Imam Hussein (peace be upon him). They would weep bitterly, shedding tears for their grief over his martyrdom. However, the situation of current mourning gatherings seems to have drastically changed.

This intertwining of factors motivated the scholars of the fourth century (Hijri) to declare all forms of entertainment and indulgence in music as impermissible. As we have seen, they considered music to be unlawful primarily because it falls under the category of lahw (amusement) and ghina.

Safavids and the Expansion of Dervish Music

Religious scholars during the Mongol era lived through great hardship until the Safavid dynasty, which was Shia, came to power in Iran. For the first time, the Safavids officially established Shia Islam throughout Iran and pushed Sunni Muslims towards the borders. The Safavids considered themselves as “the perfect guide” (Murshid Kamil). One of the main principles of the Safavids was that the opinion of the “perfect guide” was paramount. The Safavid kings gave their despotism a religious tint, aiming to make religious culture an instrument of their authoritarian rule. The great figures of the Safavid period, who were religious figures, were considered “perfect guides” rather than Islamic scholars.

However, it must be acknowledged that under the banner of Shiaism, the Safavid kings did contribute significantly to the development of Shia culture. It was during this time that Shia scholars, after enduring a thousand years of oppression, finally found the opportunity, with governmental support, to revive the relics of the Imams and the leaders of the faith (peace be upon them). The number of scholars that emerged during this period is remarkable.

Among the religious scholars from the 11th century onward (the Safavid period to the present day), even

even though there were many intellectuals and figures, the role of dervishes and mystics (Sufis) in spreading Shia culture and Islamic spirituality should not be underestimated. These figures, many of whom were affiliated with the Safavid court or were close to the royal family, played a significant part in weaving a spiritual and cultural fabric that could bind the different parts of the society together under the new Shia identity.

It was during the Safavid period that the Persian school of mysticism, often referred to as the “Ishraqiyya” or “Illuminationist” tradition, gained prominence. This school blended Persian philosophy, particularly Neoplatonism, with Islamic thought and mysticism. This was not just a philosophical movement but a cultural transformation that had deep roots in poetry, music, and art. Dervish music, along with the mystical rituals of the Sufi orders, became a significant part of the religious and social life in Safavid Iran.

Dervish music, characterized by its repetitive rhythms and meditative melodies, was believed to facilitate a spiritual connection with the Divine. The Safavid rulers, who sought to use religion as a tool for consolidating their power, simultaneously encouraged artistic and spiritual expressions that aligned with their Shia policies. The art forms, including music, poetry, and calligraphy, that flourished during this era were often linked to the mystical practices of the Sufis, who found their expression in these cultural mediums.

This intertwining of mysticism and the arts helped foster a unique religious and cultural atmosphere, where dervishes, poets, musicians, and painters all contributed to the shaping of Safavid Iran’s identity. The Safavid period saw the flourishing of what might be called a “mystical nationalism” — one that blended religious devotion with a deep sense of cultural pride.

The Meaning of the Term “Dervishes” and the Role of the Safavid Family in Empowering Them

The author refers to the dervishes and Sufis who had gained power during the Safavid era due to the influence of the Safavid family, and enjoyed freedom of action. Amili states that those who approve of the permissibility of music say these things because they are fond of philosophers, experts, and musicians, as they themselves are philosophers and wish to lead people in their path. These are people who seek false authority and the ephemeral world. He mentions the late Sabzevari, who, despite not being highly educated, may imply that “we are the educated ones” and soon it will be clear who the more educated one is. In these straightforward phrases, Amili cleverly expresses his feelings.

Sheikh Ali’s View on Music and Singing

In his treatise, Sheikh Ali views vocal modulation and melody as permissible and considers the enjoyment of music as the cause for the prohibition of singing. While the enjoyment of melody naturally results in pleasure, he views the indulgence in music itself as impermissible, rather than its cause.

Amili believes that vocal modulation can be classified into two categories: one that causes pleasure to the soul, which is considered sinful, and another that does not. The key point is that it is the pleasurable experience (tarab) that is problematic, not the cause of it. He questions whether an individual can also enjoy non-singing activities and whether that enjoyment is objectionable.

A Broader Understanding of Tarab (Joy or Ecstasy)

Amili suggests that only vocalization that brings joy to the soul is problematic, as in the case of immoral people, but not other forms of melody or lilt that don’t lead to illicit pleasure. He adds that those who engage in singing for the enjoyment of others, and who do so for moral reasons or in a way that does not encourage debauchery, should not be condemned. His assertion contrasts with Sheikh Ali, who insists on condemning the singers of debauched gatherings.

The Controversy Surrounding Music in the Safavid Era

Amili criticizes those who think that music is permissible, accusing them of ignorance and deviation from the path. He especially criticizes Sabzevari for writing an analytical treatise on the matter, implying that his approach stems from a lack of understanding and intellect. In essence, Amili argues that Sabzevari is incorrect in his conclusions, which, according to Amili, stem from narrow-mindedness and a lack of comprehensive knowledge.

Fiqh of Music and Singing: The Views of Fiḍāʾī and Others

Fiḍāʾī, a prominent Islamic scholar, holds a more lenient view on the matter. Although he is not a music expert himself, having been trained in philosophy, he enters the discussion with a nuanced understanding of the subject. He does not immediately declare music and singing as impermissible. Instead, he begins his argument by pointing out that vocal modulation and lilt are not inherently sinful, as suggested by some hadiths that emphasize the beautiful recitation of the Quran with modulation, suggesting that music in this context does not constitute sin.

Fiḍāʾī distinguishes between types of music and singing, suggesting that not all forms of singing or music are sinful. Singing that leads to spiritual reflection or reminds one of divine realities, such as the paradise or hell, can be permissible, while music that is linked to debauchery or entertainment is what should be avoided. This nuanced approach places music and singing into different categories, based on the intention behind them and the context in which they are performed.

Conclusion: A More Inclusive Understanding of Music in Islamic Jurisprudence

In summary, both Amili and Sabzevari share the belief in the permissibility of certain forms of music, though they interpret the issue through different lenses. Amili views music in the context of its potential for moral and spiritual harm, whereas Sabzevari believes that such concerns should be framed within the larger context of Islamic law. These two views reflect the broader debates on music and singing that emerged during the Safavid period, especially as social and political dynamics shaped the religious and philosophical discussions of the time.

Fiḍāʾī’s contributions also illustrate a more refined approach, where music and singing are examined not as inherently sinful acts, but as phenomena that may or may not lead to sin, depending on their context and the intentions of those involved. This nuanced perspective, based on individual circumstances, suggests that the legal approach to music should not be uniform, but should take into account the specific situation of the individual.

The late Seyyed Mir-Louhi’s treatise and the book of Sheikh Hurr al-Aamili have strayed from scientific methodology and have not remained immune to the harms and damages of political involvement. It must be noted that Shah Abbas Safavi, during his reign, adopted a “divide and rule” policy as part of his governance approach. He manipulated both the Akhbari scholars and the Sufis, among others, and despite his many virtues, anyone who did not follow him or bow down at his feet would be subjected to severe punishment. Few monarchs could match his astuteness. Therefore, the influence of the ideas and views that he supported in books written during his time should not be ignored.

Mohammad bin Mohammad Darabi (may God have mercy on him),

One of the books written in defense of the late Sabzavari’s treatise on the subject of music is “Maqamat al-Salikīn,” authored by Mohammad bin Mohammad Darabi (alive around 1130 AH), a student of Sheikh Baha’i. He refers to his book “A Branch of the Sacred Tulip” in which he speaks about love, joy, and happiness. The book “Maqamat al-Salikīn” is written in Persian. In it, he generally offers no new insights on the jurisprudence of music and simply reiterates the views of Shaykh al-Thani (may God have mercy on him). He considers music (ghina) as forbidden, but does not see a pleasant voice or lamentation as equivalent to music. In cases where it is considered music, he argues that such music can be permissible. He leaves the determination of what constitutes music to social conventions. Darabi adopts a conservative approach in this book, thus avoiding being labeled as misguided or deviated, as was the case with Sabzavari.

He considers the use of musical instruments in ghina singing, a woman’s voice in the presence of a foreign man or its sensual nature, and false speech as examples of forbidden music.

Darabi chooses the viewpoint of the late Sabzavari in Kifayat al-Ahkam as a reconciliation between the narrations that prohibit and those that permit ghina, and he adopts this position in his book.

Examining treatises and books written after the late Sabzavari, such as “Iqaz al-Naimeen wa I’az al-Jahileen” by Sayyid Majid Bahrani, “Risalah fi al-Ghina” by Abdul-Samad Hamadani, and “Risalah fi Tahaqiq al-Ghina: Mawdu’an wa Hukman” by Mirza Qummi, among others written in this field, reveals that none of them offer anything new beyond each other. They either provide clarification and elaboration on previous thoughts, or they serve as a means of addressing manners or criticisms. Otherwise, the arguments presented are the same, or the views of the authors are critically evaluated and analyzed in detail in some juridical books, particularly in the legal writings of Sheikh Ansari, who is truly regarded as the genius in the field of Islamic jurisprudence.

Sheikh Yousuf Bahrani (may God have mercy on him)

Sheikh Yousuf bin Ahmad Bahrani (d. 1186 AH), the author of the important book Al-Hada’iq al-Nadhirah fi Ahkam al-Itrah al-Tahira, includes ghina as one of the forbidden actions in the third section of his book, where he lists prohibitions. He writes:

“It has been said that ghina is the drawing out of a voice in a way that is accompanied by modulation and induces joy, and hence, a voice or song that does not possess these characteristics is not forbidden. Tarab is the feeling of lightness that occurs in a person, making them either happy or sad. Some scholars have left the definition of ghina to the common understanding and say that anything society deems as ghina is forbidden, even if it does not induce tarab.”

Bahrani adopts this view. However, he does not provide an argument for prohibiting modulation, the rolling of sound in the throat, or the sense of joy that follows. Pleasure and delight are part of human nature, so why should they be opposed? There is no necessary connection between joy and prohibition. Bahrani also passes on the judgment of ghina to the common people’s understanding. He critiques the position of the late Muhaddith Kashani and says:

“The interpretation given by some scholars is incorrect, for the narrations prohibiting ghina have an apparent meaning and do not address the related conditions or circumstances that have been associated with it, especially those regarding listening to ghina or the buying and selling of singing slaves.”

In jurisprudence, it is clearly stated that an absolute ruling should not be restricted unless specific qualifiers are applied. The late Bahrani, being an Akhbari, diverges here, contradicting established principles.

Despite this, Bahrani’s work should not be dismissed unfairly, as these scholars had significant efforts to transmit the legacy of past jurists to future generations, especially given the lack of print technology at the time. They passed over religious propositions without much depth because many jurists held the view that ghina was forbidden, and thus took the outward meaning of narrations at face value without considering their context or the conditions of the time. Given that music and ghina were associated with the immoral and sinful classes, they deemed it forbidden and merely repeated the views of their predecessors without deeper analysis, especially since they were working under significant constraints. Furthermore, the Safavid government’s policy of honoring Sufis and their involvement in the court led many scholars to distance themselves from the Safavid state, a conflict that persists even to this day.

Sheikh Mohamad Jawad Hosseini Ameli (may God have mercy on him)

The late Mohaghegh Jawad, author of the valuable book Miftah al-Karamah fi Sharh Qawa’id al-‘Allamah (d. 1226 AH) and the teacher of the author of Jawahir al-Kalam, reviews and critiques the views of other jurists in this book, which is a commentary on the legal principles of Allama Hilli. He holds the view that permissible ghina is that which is free from modulation and the rolling of sound in the throat. Modulation, in his view, has several forms, and he believes that the act of rolling a sound in the throat (such as the Persian “he he he”) or the Arabic equivalent should be avoided.

However, he offers no proof for the prohibition of modulation, and like others, he confuses the meanings of tarab, atrab, and taṭrīb, and he fails to recognize the full scope of modulation in music, particularly in its Arabic tradition.

In the end, Hosseini Ameli concludes that there is no difference of opinion regarding the prohibition of ghina, whether it is found in the Qur’an or elsewhere, though scholars such as Muhaddith Kashani, Fadhil Khurasani, and Ghazali argued that ghina is permissible.

In the same spirit, he criticizes those who argue for the permissibility of ghina, calling their views influenced by the Sunnis, even if those advocating for ghina are Shiite scholars.

Sheikh Mohammad Hasan Najafi (may God have mercy on him)

A prominent jurist of the 17th century and author of Jawahir al-Kalam fi Sharh Shara’i al-Islam (d. 1266 AH), Sheikh Najafi does not present any new ideas in his treatment of ghina and music. He maintains the absolute prohibition of ghina, even in the context of mourning rituals and elegies. In his discussion, he considers both the performers and listeners of musical instruments as corrupt and uses consensus and several narrations to support his stance.

However, the consensus he relies on, though documented, is not considered a valid proof in jurisprudence, and his treatment of the subject is brief, indicating that this issue was seen as self-evident.

The approach of the scholars at the time moved toward logical reasoning and away from blind adherence to tradition, particularly with figures like Sheikh Ansari, whose innovative work laid the foundations for modern jurisprudential analysis.

Sheikh Ansari (may God have mercy on him)

Sheikh Murtada bin Mohammad bin Amin Ansari (1214-1282 AH), a renowned scholar and the founder of modern jurisprudential research, approaches the issue of ghina in a significantly different manner. He first outlines the history of ghina and discusses some of its foundational sources briefly. Rather than starting with fixed assumptions, he logically explores the topic, valuing open-mindedness and intellectual freedom.

Ansari does not find a solid basis for the inherent prohibition of ghina, and concludes that it is forbidden only when associated with lahw (vain entertainment) and when it leads to actions contrary to morality. In essence, if ghina is linked to such activities, it is forbidden; otherwise, if it is free from such associations, it is not.

Ansari’s approach is thoroughly analytical, distinguishing between the concept of lahw and ghina, and his methodical and open-ended investigation forms the foundation of his jurisprudence. His book Makasib al-Muharramah remains a key text in seminary jurisprudence, surpassing works like Jawahir al-Kalam due to its depth of analysis and emphasis on reasoning.

In his final analysis, Ansari concludes that ghina, when associated with immoral or unlawful contexts, is forbidden, but it is not inherently prohibited unless it is linked to lahw or sinful acts.

It is not the case, but when the “tone of the sinner” is the subject of discussion, there is no difference between a musical sound and a non-musical one. A sinful sound, whether musical or not, is haram.

If we were to carefully and thoughtfully consider the words of this great scholar and jurist, we would realise that Sheikh (may Allah have mercy on him) cannot categorically declare music as haram simply because it is music. He is a knowledgeable jurist and lacks evidence to declare its prohibition. On the other hand, he cannot ignore its prohibition, as there are extensive narrations and the fatwas of earlier jurists indicating that it is indeed haram, particularly the type of tone associated with the sinful people, the courtiers of the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs, who were the biggest sinners, for accepting the rule of the false government and the usurped authority of the tyrants. The Sheikh may have been uncertain in identifying the exact subject of haram music or may not have wished to give a clear ruling on the matter. Instead, he preferred to cautiously abstain from issuing a definitive stance, bringing forward the words of certain linguists and jurists to highlight the differences in scholarly opinions. He adopts the common definition of “ghina” (song or music) as recognised by ordinary language and claims that the music they recognised is not haram at all. This suggests that these scholars did not understand ghina as we do, and their ruling may have been incorrect. He adopts the definition from the “Sahih al-Lugha” (authentic lexicons) as the most accurate one. This definition, he asserts, aligns with the conventional understanding among jurists. An interesting point in Sheikh’s statement is that the common understanding of ghina, particularly the music and tones associated with the Umayyads and Abbasids, is indeed the true ghina, which is the object of prohibition in the narrations. That is, the real and well-known concept of ghina, clear to the people of that time, even if its history is not familiar to us today.

In these words, Sheikh refers to an important point: none of the recognised identifiers of ghina are accurate, and he instead defines it as the concept that was well-known in his time. The same concept of ghina is the one addressed in the narrations, referring to the female slaves who sang provocatively and committed numerous sins in the courts of the tyrants. According to this perspective, the problem is not with the sound or tone itself, whether normal or musical, but with the association of such tones with sin, corruption, and falsehood, making them haram. The narrations about the prohibition of ghina and music specifically concern these types of musical acts. However, if such music were to serve a false, tyrannical government today, its prohibition would still apply. For example, music played by foreign artists serving imperialism is undoubtedly one of the gravest sins.

Sheikh, in his words, declares music that is frivolous or sinful to be haram, but not ghina in its essence, without considering any necessary restrictions or conditions. It appears that his view diverges from nearly a thousand years of jurisprudence, with only a few exceptions. Perhaps he did not want to openly disagree with the majority of jurists and chose to introduce a subtle distinction between musical sounds that are permissible and those that are haram. Therefore, he speaks about music that belongs to the sinful people.

Following this interpretation, if a musical sound were broadcast by an Islamic nation’s media, there would be no issue, as the performers are not engaging in sin, and their music would not be classified as the music of the sinful. However, if the same sound were broadcast by foreign or enemy media, its performance, broadcast, and viewing would be haram, as it would be understood as music of the sinful. In this view, disbelief and faith do not affect the permissibility or prohibition of music. Instead, what matters is whether the music is frivolous or not. The reason behind prohibiting the tone of the sinful is that it causes heedlessness and misguidance, fosters falsehood, and promotes corruption. However, the tone of Prophet David, the beautiful recitation of Imam Hassan, and the recitation of the Qur’an and the faithful have no problem and can have a musical quality that nullifies the music of the sinful.

Upon reviewing Sheikh’s statements, it becomes clear that he avoids issuing a direct fatwa and speaks ambiguously, making it difficult to obtain a definitive ruling from him, much like the philosophical statements of Mir Damad, which are often difficult to understand. Although Mulla Sadra presented similar ideas in his writings, he faced political pressure for being outspoken, whereas Mir Damad was always highly respected. Scholars sometimes choose to express their views in complex or ambiguous ways, especially when political circumstances require them to do so. However, in the current climate, where public understanding has grown, withholding a fatwa is inappropriate, unless the government, influenced by dogmatic scholars, harasses more progressive and enlightened jurists.

Sheikh also declares the use of musical instruments, as they are instruments of amusement, to be haram without exception, and does not make any exceptions. He states:

“Some items have only a haram use and can only be used for corrupt purposes, such as musical instruments like flutes and harps, as well as objects of amusement, crosses, and idols. Learning to play these instruments, teaching them, or receiving payment for them is haram.”

He insists on the absolute prohibition of musical instruments because he cannot conceive of any permissible use for them. He acknowledges that a musical sound can have a permissible use, but in the present time, there is no allowed purpose for them in the contexts he envisions. Many items, even those considered impure or harmful, can have beneficial uses, such as blood, semen, statues, or dolls, which can be bought, sold, and used for constructive purposes, a matter that should be addressed elsewhere.

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The Caliphs of tyranny in the era of the narrations and other arguments of these two wise scholars are critiqued:

“What has been attributed to the Hadith scholar Kashani and the jurist Sabzewari, the author of Kifayat al-Ahkam, in denying the intrinsic prohibition of ghina and restricting it to its incidental and accompanying elements, and subsequently criticizing them for this, does not align with the apparent meaning of their statements. In his books Wafi and Mafatih, Kashani and Sabzewari in Kifayat al-Ahkam state that ghina is of two types: ghina of truth and ghina of falsehood. The ghina of truth is that which consists of singing poetry that reminds of Heaven and Hell and encourages a person to focus on the eternal abode. The ghina of falsehood is that which is associated with gatherings of debauchery, corruption, idleness, dancing, and the presence of non-mahram individuals, such as the gatherings of the Umayyads and Abbasids.”(1)

Imam Khomeini (may his soul rest in peace) defends Kashani’s position and states:

“Any person who carefully considers the beginning and end of Kashani’s statements will understand that, from his perspective, ghina is divided into two categories: the unlawful ghina and the permissible ghina. The unlawful ghina occurs when it is associated with the characteristics already mentioned, meaning that it becomes unlawful due to its association with what is false and forbidden, not because only the accompanying elements are unlawful but because both the ghina itself and its associations are forbidden. The prohibition of ghina is intrinsic and not contingent upon its associations with unlawful acts.

The permissible ghina that has been exempted refers to singing for the purpose of giving advice, reminding one of the Truth through a melodic voice, such as the singing of elegies and reciting the Qur’an or the singing of shepherds calling their sheep, and singing at weddings, which are allowed.”

Furthermore, he asserts:

“The claim made by Kashani does not contradict the consensus of the jurists, nor does it diverge from the jurisprudence of either the Shia or Sunni schools. Therefore, accusations such as ‘superstition’ and ‘nonsense’ against him are unbefitting, and a response should be made with reasoned arguments and logic, as Sheikh Ansari has done, presenting the weaknesses in Kashani’s reasoning and critically addressing his claims. For example, the apparent meaning of the narrations is sufficiently clear regarding the absolute prohibition of ghina, and we cannot disregard that. The interpretative narrations are an example of this.

Another argument that Kashani uses is ‘insaraf’, meaning that the narrations concerning ghina are related to the era of the Umayyads and Abbasids, and thus only the ghina of that time is the subject of these narrations. However, during the time of the aforementioned Caliphs, their gatherings were full of other forbidden and vain activities, and generally, poetry recitals accompanied by singing were common, with other prohibitions such as dancing and drinking also taking place. It is therefore incorrect to claim ‘insaraf’ applies only to the time of the Umayyads and Abbasids.”(1)

A careful examination of the writings and statements of Imam Khomeini (may his soul rest in peace) regarding ghina and music reveals that he is aligned with other jurists on both issues and generally adheres to their viewpoints in most matters in this area. However, it should be noted that the writings date from the era of the Pahlavi regime. Imam Khomeini (may his soul rest in peace) writes in his book Tahrir al-Wasilah:

“Ghina singing, listening to it, and earning income from it are forbidden. By ‘hearing’ in this context, the reference is to listening. Ghina is not confined to pleasant voices; rather, it refers to a vocal style and modulation that is entertaining, evocative, and suitable for gatherings of indulgence and enjoyment. In this context, it does not matter whether the words are true, such as in the recitation of the Qur’an or the reciting of elegies.

Yes, the ghina performed at weddings is an exception to the prohibition of ghina, but it is not without restriction. Caution should be exercised, and it is preferable to limit such activities to before or after the event itself, and it should not be conducted at every gathering. The safest course is to avoid ghina altogether, whether at weddings or elsewhere.”(1)

On 30th July 1979, Imam Khomeini addressed the radio staff, stating:

“Music is one of those things that everyone might naturally like, but it takes a person away from seriousness and leads them to frivolity. A young person who becomes accustomed to spending several hours daily with music… becomes completely distracted from the serious issues of life, just as those addicted to drugs. People addicted to drugs can no longer be serious in political matters. Music conditions the mind so that one cannot think outside of that musical environment, concerned only with desires and related to music.”(2)

Ayatollah Sayyid Abul-Qasim Khui (may Allah have mercy on him)

Ayatollah Khui (d. 1993) lists three arguments for the prohibition of ghina: consensus, Qur’anic verses, and narrations. However, he rejects the consensus argument as evidence, considering it insufficient. He thoroughly examines Kashani’s view and disagrees with the idea that the prohibition of ghina is incidental rather than intrinsic. He states:

“When we interpret the narrations that contain the most severe prohibitions of ghina and music as applying only to the sins associated with them, the prohibition applies to the other sins involved. In this case, focusing on ghina and music and issuing such a severe judgment about them becomes irrelevant.”(1)

We have explained that the harsh tone in the narrations regarding ghina and music is due to their destructive impact on the thoughts of Muslims, especially the youth, diverting them from the high position of authority and leading them to adore the Caliphs, which gradually undermined the religion. Therefore, it would not be appropriate to apply the prohibition of music and ghina to situations where they support the Shiite state and the guardianship of the Imams, as in the case of the Prophet’s family, where music serves to defend their legitimacy. The narrations should be understood in light of this context.

Ayatollah Khui also excludes elegies from the category of ghina. He argues that the performance of ghina in elegies does not fall within the exceptions of ghina because it maintains the essence of ghina. If ghina is prohibited for being ghina, it should be forbidden in all its forms unless explicitly exempted.

He states:

“Based on the narrations — when we combine some of them with others — the definition of prohibited ghina is as follows: a vocal performance that is accompanied by levity, falsehood, and misguidance. Whether in truthful speech or in false speech, ghina involves a specific style, often referred to as ‘sama’ in classical Arabic, and it is generally seen as frivolous or a ‘false voice.’ In common understanding, it is recognized as ‘singing’ or ‘chanting,’ especially when accompanied by musical instruments or dancing, as with the ghina broadcasted through radios or other media.”(1)

As we can observe, the statements here are not new but rather a repetition of the views of previous jurists. Recent scholars have not provided any novel research on this subject but have simply reiterated the opinions of their predecessors.

Ayatollah Sayyid Muhammad-Ridha Golpaygani (may Allah have mercy on him)

He discusses ghina from four general perspectives:

“Ghina can be examined from four general perspectives:

1. The prohibition of ghina, which is unanimously accepted, with Jawahir claiming consensus, and the narrations regarding its prohibition being considered mutawatir (widely reported).
2. The prohibition of listening to ghina, in which there is also no disagreement.
3. Ghina is considered a major sin, and there is no disagreement on this, with some narrations promising Hell for it.
4. The fourth aspect is identifying the nature of the ghina that has been prohibited.”

In the view of the jurists, including Ayatollah Golpaygani, ghina refers to a voice characterized by particular modulation that is either in truth or falsehood, often associated with musical instruments and frivolous behavior. The prohibition applies whether the speech is true (such as in Qur’anic recitation) or false (such as in obscene or frivolous poetry).

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Assuming it is a sin, is it classified as a major or minor sin?

In addressing the fourth aspect of the discussion, which concerns the identification of the subject of music, no precise definition of music is provided, nor is there any new or original insight offered. Rather, reference is made to the well-established view of scholars, who consider the understanding of music to be based on common custom. This view was critiqued by the late Sheikh Ansari. In this regard, there appears to be no comprehensive research from his pen, nor has any prominent scholar of this era presented a thorough, coherent, and scholarly investigation on the matter that would warrant citation and reference.

Ayatollah Sayyid Shihabuddin Marashi Najafi (May Allah have mercy on him)

Ayatollah Marashi (d. 1410 AH) responded to the following queries:

1. What is the ruling on earning money through gambling, music, and similar activities?

“Earning money must be through lawful and legitimate means. Methods such as theft, usury, music, and gambling are prohibited.”

1. Is it permissible to use the radio and television?

“Using the radio and television is permissible as long as it is not for amusement or frivolous purposes, such as listening to religious speeches, scientific talks, the Qur’an, or news. However, listening to music, songs, and immoral programmes is forbidden.”

1. What is the ruling on classical music and music played before or after news broadcasts or during films?

“It is better to avoid listening to it.” (1)

1. What is the ruling on singing, especially if accompanied by music?

“Singing is permissible if it involves moral teachings or guidance, provided it is not done in a manner of musical embellishment. However, any form of music is problematic.” (2)

Based on the fatwas of this pious scholar, any use by the youth or the public of visual and auditory media, except for religious guidance, education, or information, is not permissible. It is essential to avoid such media, especially the alluring sounds of the “magic box” — the television.

At this point, we refrain from quoting other contemporary scholars to respect their dignity and because the necessary discussions regarding the views of past scholars have already been covered. There is no need to repeat their opinions unnecessarily.

A Harsh Portrayal of the Easy-going Shari‘a

A review of the scholars’ statements reveals that the religious culture depicted by them concerning music and singing, unlike the portrayal of the Shari‘a, has become stringent due to a lack of deep research and precise understanding of the subject, or the weakness of the soul in opposing the prevailing trend and blind imitation. This has led to a stringent and harsh approach, which is far from true piety and represents a deficiency. Just as our religion is one of ease and facilitation, scholars should adopt a likewise approach — though, of course, this should not be without reason or logic.

Music from the Post-Safavid Era to the Islamic Revolution

During the reign of Fath Ali Shah Qajar, between the First and Second Russo-Iranian Wars, when relations between the two countries appeared to be cordial, the Russian ambassador brought with him a 30-piece musical ensemble. Upon witnessing this, Crown Prince Abbas Mirza sought to establish a military band in the new European style. During the reign of Nasir al-Din Shah, military music ensembles in the European style replaced traditional drum houses. (1) The curriculum at the music school was five years long, and a sixth-grade certificate was required for entry. The primary goal of the music department at Dar al-Fonun was to train musicians and instructors for military bands.

The European music teacher, Mr. Lomer, who did not speak Persian, appointed Mirza Ali Khan Naqqashbashi, known as Muzin al-Dawlah — who was also a French language and painting teacher at Dar al-Fonun — as his translator. Mirza Ali Khan translated Lomer’s music theory lessons into Persian, and the first book on music theory in the new style was published, containing French sentences with their Persian translations. (1882 CE / 1301 AH)

Lomer composed a piece titled “Salam to the Shah,” which was performed until the reign of Mohammad Ali Shah, and then it changed during the time of Ahmad Shah.

Lomer’s music found its way into the hands of feudal lords and degenerate female musicians. Among those who graduated from Dar al-Fonun under Lomer’s teachings, not a single scholar is mentioned. Music in Iran, the only Shi‘a country in the world, became “Mr. Lomer’s” domain. Following Lomer’s teachings, works of great Persian poets such as Hafez, Saadi, and Rumi faded into obscurity, replaced by meaningless and licentious poetry. The domination of superficial and rigid traditionalists in the royal courts led to the decline of noble poetry and music, overshadowing the scholarly contributions of thinkers like Shaykh Tusi and Farabi — scholars who, according to Imam Khomeini, were not part of the courts but controlled them. Yes, scholars entered the courts not to surrender, but to tame the wild wolves that were empowered by their divine queen. Such scholars possessed the strength and political acumen to remain in court while safeguarding their lives and those of the people, but the rigidity and fanaticism of the superficial traditionalists led to the weakening of the power of religious scholars, allowing foreign cultural influence to take root.

Lomer’s Role in Subverting Shi‘a Culture

Mr. Lomer, a Mason and an ally of political and Jewish Masonic movements, promoted the policy of “subverting Shi‘a knowledge.” He aimed to erode Iran’s noble literature and mysticism through Western music. His teachings promoted hedonistic and morally corrupt themes, replacing the rich, profound poetry of religious scholars and philosophers with shallow, sensual songs like “This miserable beauty has a torn sleeve,” or “I saw a girl on the road, kicking on a donkey, wearing a tight skirt.” This decline was not inevitable but was the result of specific cultural choices. Music and singing became the domain of debauched men and women, marking the beginning of a decline in societal values. Even the pious people became reluctant to attend family weddings for fear of being associated with such decadent gatherings.

Religious scholars, instead of upholding the principle of “Prepare for them all the strength you can muster” (Qur’an, 8:60), distanced themselves from this issue, neglecting to take the necessary stand against the enemy’s cultural onslaught. The policy of retreat that has befallen the Shi‘a has often led to defeat. No Shi‘a should shy away from advancing against the enemy, even if they must use the principle of “Tatarus” (in Islamic jurisprudence), which permits defensive measures, including targeting enemy forces who hide behind human shields, even if those human shields include fellow Muslims.

However, alas, genuine scholarly institutions retreated, and the tools of battle were handed over to figures like “Mr. Lomer,” who was aligned with Masonic forces, leaving the field wide open for them. These figures proceeded to wage cultural warfare against Shi‘a values. The pupils of Lomer took the musical modes that had been painstakingly discovered by religious scholars and used them in vulgar and morally degrading contexts. They took the complex systems of music, which are deeply rooted in philosophy and psychology, and used them to promote promiscuity. Under the reign of the Qajars, and particularly during the Pahlavi era, music and singing saw a regressive trajectory, mimicking the practices of the Umayyad and Abbasid courts. Existing records and photographs from that time serve as stark evidence of this claim. The films of that era were so depraved that they led to an increase in incestuous crimes. As a result, religious scholars declared the purchase of records, watching television, and attending cinemas as prohibited. Believers, in order to avoid any resemblance to the infidels, even held their weddings like funeral gatherings, reciting only blessings and avoiding applause.

Women’s Singing and the Voice of Women

The essence of singing (insofar as it is singing) is not inherently problematic. The jurisprudential ruling on singing is contingent, not intrinsic, and depends on external conditions and circumstances. This ruling is common to both men and women, and any gender-specific consideration that treats a woman’s voice differently would require specific evidence from Islamic law. There is no prohibition in Shari’ah that explicitly forbids women from singing, and therefore, women singing as singing is permissible.

Shari’ah does not regard the voice of a woman as something that must be concealed. Even though a woman’s voice may be melodic, it is not akin to her body, which must remain covered. “Awrah” (that which must be hidden) is not equivalent to “concealment” of her voice. Had it been the case that a woman’s voice must be concealed, not only would it be impermissible for a woman to sing, but speaking to a non-mahram man would also be prohibited for this reason. If a woman’s voice were considered something to be concealed, it would not be appropriate for it to be revealed during prayer or heard by angels. Likewise, a woman’s voice should never be loud (jahar) in prayer. The concealment that is required for women’s voices is not contingent on whether the listener is a mahram or non-mahram. Of course, it’s important to understand what is meant by “concealment.” If a woman’s voice is considered similar to her body (with the exception of her face and hands up to the wrists), it must be concealed from non-mahrams, but if “concealment” pertains to specific parts of her body, then it would only apply to speaking to her husband.

There have been various discussions by scholars on women’s voices: whether they should be raised or lowered in prayer, whether women can sing during religious or wedding ceremonies, whether they can mourn in funeral rites, and whether they should be kept secluded from non-mahram gazes. We have examined all of these topics in detail in the book “The Jurisprudence of Singing and Music.” In this context, based on the evidence presented in that book, we discuss these issues.

The voice, like numbers, is an indivisible essence. Numbers exist as units and the concept of unity applies to all of them, without increase or decrease. The voice, too, shares this quality and is manifested across all of its wavelengths, whether it is short or long. Recitation, whether loud (jahar) or quiet (ikhfāt), is united in essence. It is not possible to find recitation without either loudness or quietness, just as it is impossible to find a number that is neither even nor odd. The difference between loudness and quietness is primarily a matter of resonance, where a voice with a vibrant tone can be categorized as loud, whereas a voice without resonance is considered quiet. Islam allows women to raise their voices in prayer and does not mandate the absence of tone, for the resonance of the voice contributes to the spiritual growth and elevation of the individual. If a woman is not able to recite or pray with her voice, she is relegated to listening to others.

A quiet voice, though lacking in resonance, is still a voice, and non-mahrams can hear it. Just as loudness is often concealed, the quiet voice too must be hidden, especially since it has the potential to provoke greater emotional responses due to the effort required to hear it. Psychological studies suggest that the more something is concealed or forbidden, the more one craves it. Therefore, a quiet voice can often invoke greater desire to listen, making its concealment just as significant as that of a loud voice.

The ruling that a woman’s voice must be concealed stems from a collective preference among certain religious scholars and is a later addition, rooted in patriarchal traditions that developed after the Minor Occultation. There is no clear religious evidence supporting this notion, other than the claims of certain groups. God created humans in the best form and endowed them with a beautiful voice. Imam Ja’far al-Sadiq, in Tawhid al-Mufaddal, refers to the human voice as the “greatest pipe.” Some jurists call this voice “concealment,” but if that were the case, God would have placed it in a more concealed part of the body, just as He did with other private parts. There is no contradiction between the public nature of the voice and its beauty. The idea that a woman’s voice should be hidden is a later misinterpretation.

There is no restriction on a woman’s voice unless it is associated with something wrong. Both men and women can engage in singing in contexts where it is permissible according to Islamic law. When music and singing are permitted, the voice—whether from a man or woman—can be heard, whether by non-mahrams or not.

While there is scholarly disagreement on whether women are allowed to raise their voices in public prayer in the presence of non-mahrams, this dispute is not rooted in Islamic texts. The different interpretations arise due to a lack of understanding of the philosophical nature of different entities and how they should be viewed. If this issue were handed over to an acoustics expert, they would easily clarify the differences between loud and quiet sounds, resolving any debates.

Islamic law does not prohibit the healthy use of a woman’s voice in singing or other contexts. Any prohibitions on singing apply to both men and women equally, and are based on the presence of sin or immorality. Women, like men, are allowed to sing in appropriate circumstances, provided they avoid sinful content. A woman’s voice, when used for purposes that align with Islamic principles, such as for worship or good deeds, is not inherently prohibited.

However, if singing or music promotes false beliefs, supports injustice, or leads to the spread of immoral behavior, it becomes impermissible. Therefore, we condemn “corrupt” singing that serves political regimes of oppression or promotes indecency and vice. Such prohibitions apply equally to both men and women.

The Common Nature of the Voice Between Men and Women

All Islamic rulings that apply to human beings are shared between men and women. If someone claims that a ruling is specific to one gender, they must provide evidence. For example, if a jurist claims that the Friday prayer is only obligatory for men, they must substantiate this claim with evidence, as the verse “Whoever does righteous deeds, whether male or female, and is a believer, We will give them a good life” (Qur’an, 16:97) makes no distinction between genders.

The truth of the voice, as with all human characteristics, is shared by both men and women. Therefore, there must be independent reasoning provided for any ruling that distinguishes between the voices of men and women, especially in matters of singing. The permissibility of music and singing, when it is not associated with sin, applies equally to both men and women.

The Role of the Saqifah Coup in the Oppression of Women

Islam initially empowered women, encouraging them to participate in social activities that would allow their talents to flourish. However, political power deviated from religious leadership after the Saqifah incident, leading to the growth of superstitions and the dominance of patriarchal biases. This shift in governance severely restricted the role of women in society, confining them to the home and limiting their participation in public life. The early Shi’a community, however, produced many remarkable women who supported the governance of the Prophet’s family. This period of women’s isolation is a significant chapter in Islamic history that requires thorough research.

Women in the early Islamic era, particularly Shia women, had little opportunity to participate in public life. Social norms stigmatized their presence in the outside world, associating it with immorality, and their public roles were severely restricted. This situation was further exacerbated by the political environment under successive rulers. The limitations placed on women’s visibility and freedom led to their near-total exclusion from social and political life.

Under the oppression of tyrannical rulers, women were forced into seclusion. However, with the Islamic Revolution led by Imam Khomeini, Shi’a women regained their rightful place in society, gaining access to all social spheres while preserving their modesty and dignity. Today, under the leadership of the Islamic Republic, women can participate in public life, including singing, provided they adhere to the principles of modesty and morality.

In conclusion, Islam does not prohibit women from singing or using their voices in righteous ways. The voice is not inherently forbidden, and the guidelines for permissible singing apply equally to men and women. Women’s participation in society is fully compatible with Islamic values when it respects the boundaries of modesty and morality.

Critique of the Policy of Gender Segregation

It is not feasible to implement a policy of gender segregation in society. Anyone who thinks otherwise is mistaken. Instead, the focus should be on creating a healthy society and educating its individuals with religious teachings so that they do not gaze at others with impure intent or act inappropriately. In this regard, it is important to adopt a cause-based perspective rather than one focused solely on symptoms. By correctly implementing policies and avoiding coercion and provocative actions, there will be no issues if both men and women are active in society and work together. Both genders will then be seen as human beings, not through the lens of gender. Through this approach, it is possible to reconcile freedom with piety. It is essential for scholars to view these issues with a discerning eye to understand the truth, even though many obstacles may prevent the achievement of this goal.

Freedom and piety hold a profound place in our beliefs and religious doctrines. They are among the major issues of jurisprudence that shape our social structure. In order to realise freedom, it is necessary to expand potentialities, elevate awareness, and reduce prohibitions until society reaches a stage where individuals perform actions based on knowledge and free will. To achieve this level of societal maturity, prohibitions should be reduced. For instance, if a wise person and a child sit at a table laden with various foods, including yoghurt, pickles, red meat, white meat, and fish fillet, the wise person will naturally choose food that benefits them while avoiding harmful items, for they are knowledgeable, rational, and possess free will. On the other hand, the child, lacking such awareness, might mix yoghurt with pickles, place them on rice, and mix it into stew, consuming it with water. In our society, we must raise awareness and reduce prohibitions to the extent that individuals can make informed decisions, just as the wise person does. However, if awareness is limited, prohibitions will increase, similar to the way we would restrict a child’s actions until they are educated.

During the pre-revolutionary era, it was once said that radios were prohibited, later it became video players, and now satellite TV is considered forbidden. However, it is by raising awareness that prohibitions decrease. In a society that is ignorant, backward, uneducated, and lacking in faith and piety, prohibitions must be increased, much like how a child is restricted. However, in a society where awareness is high, the result of reducing restrictions is less anxiety, better mental peace, and greater tranquillity.

When awareness increases, rational individuals with free will will only engage with what benefits them. Religion and Shari’a elevate awareness and reduce prohibitions. We previously explained the principle of freedom and its approach to women. However, the current jurisprudential framework contradicts this principle, and the situation in society reflects this contradiction, with the prevalence of violence and excessive restrictions being symptoms of this issue.

There are many prohibitions within fatwas, stemming from a lack of awareness in society. One contributing factor to this is the centuries-long isolation of religious scholars due to the oppressive regimes of the time.

Freedom is a consequence of awareness. The greater the awareness, the greater the freedom. Although the term “freedom” is often misused by political opportunists, it is a consequence of knowledge. In a society where awareness is low, granting freedom will lead to chaos, misrule, immorality, and ultimately the collapse of the social order. Therefore, the question of whether to grant freedom or impose autocracy should be answered by asserting the need to increase societal awareness. Both autocracy and freedom are consequences of ignorance or knowledge, and they do not have intrinsic value. If the intellectual capacity of a society is low, freedom should be withheld, much like a wild animal that, if let loose, could harm itself or others.

In a healthy society, speaking, praying, debating, and giving lectures by women—if no moral corruption is present—should not be restricted. There is no need for men to speak only to other men or women only to other women, nor is there a need for gender-based restrictions in the workplace or social interactions. In a healthy society, women can work as taxi drivers, for example, and transport male passengers. Of course, women should avoid occupations that are harmful to their wellbeing. Similarly, there is no need for men and women to be separated in public transportation; the real solution lies in improving public welfare so that everyone can travel in dignity, ensuring that no one stands or is crushed by overcrowding, and preserving their human dignity. In such a society, public chastity and morality will naturally develop, and there will be no need for strict gender segregation.

If chastity and moral decency are in place, men and women can sit next to each other in a taxi, provided that they respect each other’s space. However, in a sick society, where the sexual needs of the youth are unmet, marriage rates are declining, poverty is increasing, and unemployment is high, even strict gender segregation in places of worship or elsewhere will not prevent immoral behaviour, as people will find other ways to act upon their desires.

The Qur’an and Islam do not mandate the concealment of women or their voices. It is, in fact, certain Muslim communities that have hidden women to such an extent that hearing the word “woman” causes discomfort. This is not reflected in the Qur’an, which does not advocate for such stringent separation between men and women. These attitudes are often a result of societal pressures and historical factors, not the religion itself. Some scholars, despite their intentions, have adopted such stances due to isolation, but this is not reflective of the Qur’anic position. Our aim here is not to judge their actions but to correct these misunderstandings, as they acted with good intentions, and we pray that they receive divine reward.

The deviations seen in the societal treatment of women are the result of misguided teachings and deficiencies in understanding. Such deviations either stem from societies that make no distinction between men and women, advocating for a two-in-one, one-approach relationship, or they arise from religious conservatives who overemphasise restrictions, not from the Shari’a or the religion itself.

Islam is fundamentally centred on the figure of Lady Fatimah (peace be upon her), not on that of Imam Ali (peace be upon him) or Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). She is the “Mother of Her Father,” and all Shia Imams are her descendants. The Christian faith similarly centres on the figure of Mary (peace be upon her). When the Kufans heard the voice of Lady Zaynab (peace be upon her), they felt as though they were hearing the voice of Imam Ali (peace be upon him). The Qur’an states: “And the male is not like the female” (Qur’an, 3:36); it considers the female a measure of virtue, not merely a subject to be separated or hidden.

Lady Zaynab (peace be upon her) spoke publicly and delivered speeches in front of everyone, not from behind a curtain. Had Imam Ali (peace be upon him) intended to silence her, the message of Karbala would have been lost, and the Islamic faith would have suffered. Despite their suffering, it was women who preserved and carried forward the memory of Karbala. They conveyed the message of Imam Hussein (peace be upon him) and brought about the downfall of the Kufans and the Umayyad dynasty within forty days of his martyrdom. This was not by miracle, for if it had been, the victory would have been immediate in the battle of Karbala, and the tyrants would have been vanquished. But this was not meant to happen in that way. Rather, everything has its natural course, and Lady Zaynab (peace be upon her) spoke openly, in front of the people, for the message of Karbala to remain alive.

Islam does not differentiate between men and women when it comes to social activities; it only discusses the manner and extent of these activities. Just as there is no distinction between the two genders in terms of contributing to the defence of religion, both are called upon to engage in it. In the same way, women can participate in social issues, provided they maintain their chastity and piety. The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) took women, including his wives, with him in battle, encouraging their participation in defence.

“Freedom” is an essential principle in religious culture, which over time has been overshadowed by societal rigidity and unfounded conservatism. Such attitudes towards women often lead to mental health issues and exacerbate problems in the long term, especially in the face of Western culture’s emphasis on sexuality, violence, and immorality.

The Qur’an is not sensitive to the presence of women. Many religious rulings apply equally to both men and women. Therefore, instead of segregating women and men or heightening sensitivities in buses, public places, or holy shrines, we must change our perspectives so that we no longer feel the need to segregate. Such actions are often rooted in cultural, not religious, norms. If religious spaces were properly organised, everyone could partake in them equally, and we could avoid unnecessary segregation of men and women.

We must instill the principles of freedom and piety in society, so that every unjust individual understands that if they commit the slightest act of violation against a woman, they will not remain unscathed. In this way, there will be no need for police officers or guards, and women will be able to defend their honor and existence by themselves. Women are like flowers, but they are not weak. They must be taught to enhance their defensive capabilities and skills so they do not easily fall into sin.

Observing Boundaries and Healthy Interaction

When we say that the voice of men and women is of equal status and does not differ, it does not imply that interactions between unrelated men and women should be the same and without boundaries. The ruling concerning sound differs from that of social interaction. A man and an unrelated woman cannot behave in the same manner as a married couple would, nor can the relationship between a man and a woman be the same as that between two men or two women. Rather, by setting precise boundaries for interaction between the two sexes, Sharia aims to institutionalize religiosity, piety, purity, and cleanliness in society. Anyone who doubts this is problematic in all aspects of their religion and, clearly, misguided, corrupt, and degenerate. When discussing the relationship and interactions between men and women, it is important to emphasize the necessity of appropriate boundaries. Moreover, the rules governing social interactions also set guidelines for vocal and verbal exchanges. We only heed the words of religion, not the arbitrary interpretations in Arabic and Persian of others. When religion considers a man and a woman unrelated (maḥram), it signifies that their relationship is akin to that between two men or two women in matters of private parts. Therefore, all of a woman’s body is considered concealed from a non-maḥram man. The term “ajnabī” (foreigner or stranger) comes from the root “janab,” which implies distance and separation. When it is said that a man and a woman are ajnabī to each other, it means they are sexually distant and different from one another. These two strangers can only come close with a framework and standard provided by Sharia, which makes them near each other.

The nature of sound between men and women is identical and cannot be “hidden” for one and “apparent” for the other. The fact that there is no concealment for the voice of men and women is inherent in their nature and reflects the guidance of religion, which mirrors human reason and instinct, rather than introducing a new legal ruling. Similarly, the ruling that women are required to cover their faces and hands up to the wrist is also natural and not a privilege granted by religion.

Sharia and the Definition of Boundaries

In every matter, one must seek the opinion of Sharia and avoid personal inclinations, biases, and ethnic or traditional prejudices. The law of religion is pure freedom and liberality without any restrictions. Those who consider it restrictive and bind the intellect, leading humans into captivity, are speaking ignorantly. Sharia and sound reason are like traffic regulations—far from being obstacles, they prevent congestion, reduce accidents, and pave the way forward. Reason and Sharia are enlightening and liberating, with their essence being one of expansion. A person without sound intellect, who does not draw from the light of religion, remains lost and unable to navigate the right path, ultimately self-destructing. True freedom is contingent upon awareness, and its value is determined by knowledge; otherwise, chaos ensues. A society must reach a point where all its actions are guided by thought, awareness, and intention, not by ignorance or compulsion; otherwise, its movements—no matter how they may appear—hold no value.

What Islam considers of utmost importance in social relationships, and what it emphasizes in all matters related to non-maḥram, covering, and visibility, is ensuring “chastity.”

We have stated previously that hijab and covering are not the same. Religion demands modest covering, not hijab in the strictest sense. A covering that aligns with chastity, one that is neither frivolous nor burdensome. Such a covering can be diverse and still fulfill Islamic requirements in a scholarly and modern society.

Likewise, when it comes to gazing, Islam forbids “sharp” glances, as they are considered a form of violation. A sharp glance, regardless of whether it is morally pure or not, constitutes a violation. Violation extends beyond sin, impurity, and harm—it covers a broader scope. A sharp glance and violation are not restricted to interactions between unrelated men and women, but can also occur between individuals of the same gender. Such behavior is typically found in the actions of nosy, idle, ill-mannered people who fail to respect boundaries and engage in intrusive gazes. Whether this violation occurs towards a man or woman, of the same or opposite sex, and whether it is driven by desire or not, it is forbidden. In a society with a high moral culture, this behavior should be subject to scrutiny.

The Role of Women in Society

A woman is primarily a domestic being, and a man is primarily a social one. Therefore, neither the home nor society can be removed from either of them. They must each be engaged in both realms, according to their natural roles. Women must be placed in environments where they can rediscover their natural roles and functions, contributing to the completeness of both themselves and the men around them. Prolonged confinement of women to the home leads to restlessness, which, in turn, drives them to seek out social engagement outside the home, undermining their domestic role and causing an imbalance in their natural role. This imbalance is dangerous and ultimately leads to the destabilization of the family structure.

Nevertheless, there are several societal needs that necessitate the active participation of women in public life. These include education, university studies, legal support, healthcare, and the sales of goods related to women’s needs. Such necessities allow women to become self-sufficient and independent of men. However, women should engage in these activities part-time, not full-time, to avoid exhaustion and ensure they can still fulfill their domestic responsibilities and marital duties.

Moreover, women should be allowed to participate in jobs that men cannot undertake. For example, it is permissible for women to sing or mourn publicly, even if an unrelated man hears them.

Household and Social Roles of Women

Neither men nor women are exclusively social or domestic beings. They are a composite of both, with each having distinct roles. Women should primarily be domestic and should engage in social activities only part-time, so their primary role in the home is not compromised. Conversely, men should prioritize their social role, spending most of their time in society, but their involvement in domestic matters should not undermine their primary social responsibilities.

Women who engage full-time in professions outside the home, such as in hospitals, schools, or government offices, eventually lose their mental peace and become psychologically distressed. These women, upon returning home, often find that they have no space for affection and family intimacy. The imbalance of work and home life leads to emotional and mental strain.

Women’s Employment and Special Roles

Women, by virtue of their unique roles, should be entrusted with certain jobs that are specifically related to women’s needs. For instance, it is inappropriate for men to work in shops that sell women’s clothing or jewelry. Women are better equipped to handle these roles, as they can relate to the needs of other women and maintain a sense of psychological comfort in these transactions.

The government should create policies that define jobs as either exclusive to men or women and regulate occupations based on the gender of the workers involved. This would ensure that each gender can maintain its natural dignity and prevent moral decay in society.

Conclusion

In conclusion, when society does not adhere to a religious framework, it breeds numerous social problems. For the community to thrive, it must be governed by religious principles, ensuring that both men and women maintain their dignity and fulfill their roles in accordance with their natural dispositions. Women, particularly, should not be forced into roles that are unnatural for them, nor should they be excluded from opportunities that allow them to contribute to society in meaningful ways.

Women’s Acting

In a healthy society, where modesty (known as ‘efah’) is taken as a guiding principle, women can become actors and appear before the cameras of directors, engaging in familial roles. Even in such a healthy society, where modesty prevails, if women and men actors, in performing their roles, use romantic language, there is no issue, as long as they are not delivering speeches or conveying the words with intent. However, if, within these interactions, actors show the romantic content in their words and act as if they are expressing their own feelings, it would be considered impermissible.

An actor should be like a butcher or a tailor. This means that when a butcher finishes his work, he cleans his hands and goes home without carrying any trace of his work. Similarly, a tailor places the needle down and goes home. Likewise, after leaving the stage, an actor must cleanse his thoughts and return home, without taking the roles and feelings of the performance with him. If he does not do so, he is considered to be mentally unwell. This internal sickness results in the prohibition of acting, as the inability to maintain the boundaries between professional and personal life renders such a profession impermissible.

Today, in films, we often see a man and a woman engaging in dialogues full of flirtation and suggestive, provocative language. They are made up in such a way that one cannot even find such expressions in the most corrupt nightclubs, let alone in luxurious homes that promote consumerist culture. This affects not only women but also men, and at times, it can cause even the warmest of families to grow cold. Of course, this is not necessarily related to the sound or tone of voice, but rather to the culture that dominates society.

Healthy and Modest Interactions

Men and women in social interactions should avoid both excessiveness and neglect, maintaining modesty. It is clear that even the slightest deviation in this matter can lead to irreparable harm to society. Some individuals have fallen into the trap of neglect, avoiding eye contact with women, staring instead at carpets or the blue sky. Others have fallen into the trap of excess, looking so intently at the faces of others that they can even count the eyelashes of someone who is not a relative. Both of these approaches contradict the teachings of the Quran, which outlines the limits of appropriate gazing. The Quran instructs, “Tell the believing men to lower their gaze and guard their chastity” (24:30). The Quran does not forbid looking altogether, but rather advises men and women not to stare fixedly and to avoid intense gazes.

Similarly, the wise advice of Luqman to his son was not to avoid speech altogether but rather to speak gently: “And lower to them the wing of humility out of mercy, and say, ‘My Lord, have mercy upon them as they brought me up [when I was] small’” (31:19). The behavior of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and the infallible Imams also followed this line. One should not assume that their actions were overly difficult; rather, their conduct was modest and respectful.

The Husband’s Role in Protecting a Woman’s Modesty

Women, in general, when not subjected to harsh and specific training, are more driven by emotion and feelings, rather than rational thought. As a result, they are more prone to being captivated by fleeting pleasures or promises. Their ability to generalise or reason through complex matters is often overshadowed by their attachment to superficial appearances. This natural tendency requires that the husband become the protector and the shield for his wife. The husband must display such intelligence and thoughtfulness that he satisfies his wife’s emotional and material needs, making her feel fulfilled and secure, so that she does not feel the need to seek fulfillment elsewhere.

A woman will tend to compare her husband with other men she knows. Therefore, it is the husband’s responsibility to be the embodiment of the qualities that make a woman content and loyal. This does not mean that a husband should allow any man into his home; the protection of the family from inappropriate influences is essential.

A man must become the full embodiment of a woman’s ideal of strength, beauty, and affection. Only then can he keep her heart solely for himself, making her immune to any external temptation. If a man is dirty, weak, or unpleasant in his conduct, he cannot expect his wife to remain emotionally attached to him. Such a man will ultimately drive his wife towards corruption. Thus, the man is responsible for any emotional or moral harm caused.

The Sanctity of Women as the Heart of the Home

Women are the fragrance of life, not the warriors of battlefields. As the Quran says, “The woman is a delicate flower, not a warrior” (al-Misbah al-Kafi). A woman, in her domestic space, is the heart of the family, and her protection and nurture within the home is paramount for her well-being. She finds safety and security in the warmth of the home and in the loving arms of her husband, not in isolation, confinement, or in the face of harsh or demeaning expectations.

The Social Role of Women

In modern times, it may happen that a faithful woman, wishing to visit her father’s house, faces opposition from her husband. He may even prevent her from doing so. This attitude, which prioritises the husband’s authority to an excessive degree, can create emotional strife between the couple. The correct approach, according to Islam, is to uphold mutual respect, love, and understanding, where the husband’s authority is exercised with kindness and justice. Islam encourages husbands to be compassionate and considerate, fostering an environment where the wife feels cherished and not controlled.

Preserving Modesty in Society

It is crucial that women adhere to modest dress and behavior when participating in society. Women must avoid engaging in behaviors that could provoke men or arouse unnecessary desires. The excessive use of adornments, alluring gestures, or flirtation in public spaces, especially when these behaviors are absent in the privacy of the home, is a sign of societal decay and misdirection. Islam calls for the protection of women from such behavior, as well as from situations where they may become exposed to immoral influences.

In conclusion, while men and women both have their distinct roles in society and family, it is vital that these roles are understood in light of mutual respect, equality, and the preservation of modesty. In a society that upholds these values, both men and women can thrive, while maintaining the dignity and integrity of their relationships. Thus, Islamic teachings advocate for a balanced and respectful approach to gender roles, where each individual’s potential is nurtured in accordance with their natural abilities and social responsibilities.

The Combination of Complaints and Falsehoods in Mourning and the Role of Women in Public Celebrations

If complaint and falsehood are combined, or if mourning for tyrants and oppressive rulers is encouraged, with efforts to sustain their government, this becomes a case of falsehood and mourning without sincerity. However, the loud mourning by women, their cries, clapping of hands, and similar acts in mourning are without issue. Women mourners can earn income from this practice. However, if they set a specific fee for their mourning performances, it is disliked. This dislike may be because mourning sometimes leads to ingratitude for blessings, and the earnings from it are not considered pure, as it involves making a living from the dead or from rare life events such as weddings and funerals, where individuals are paid disproportionately and beyond the ordinary expectations.

Mourning has been a profession for some women, just as today some reciters have a few companions who accompany them to every gathering. These individuals might cry, hit themselves, and express grief in ways that lead others to cry as well. While these individuals are crying for money, others cry for the mourning of Imam Hussein (peace be upon him). Similarly, some wealthy individuals hire mourners to make their funeral gatherings appear respectable. Mourning can thus be a profession for some women, and the singing of women in the presence of non-mahram individuals in these gatherings does not pose any issue, just as in the past, women and men mourned together, cried, screamed, and women even hummed sad, rhythmic songs.

Women Singing in Joyful Gatherings

Women are allowed to sing at joyful gatherings, such as weddings, as long as these events are not accompanied by corruption. It should be noted that a wedding celebration does not grant permission to make unlawful things permissible. The boundaries of religion and divine rites must be preserved in all gatherings, including weddings. The tradition of marriage is one of happiness and joy, and halal ways of celebrating can be enjoyed.

However, if women today engage in explicit dancing before non-mahram individuals or sing inappropriately, this is considered unlawful, as is music and singing associated with corruption or lewdness. This contrasts with a woman who sings without resorting to immorality or sin, avoids singing meaningless or false lyrics, and maintains appropriate Islamic dress, in which case her singing and playing of instruments are permissible.

If women sing, clap, and dance at women-only gatherings without committing any unlawful actions, there is no issue. Especially if we provide proper role models, offer them poetry with meaningful themes, and critique the potential harms and problems, while warning against negligence in singing and music that leads to spiritual distraction.

For celebrations and weddings, it is necessary to establish appropriate models and remove unlawful actions logically, rationally, and according to societal norms. Believers must first recognise the legitimate freedoms of young people to host joyful gatherings and celebrations, casting aside un-Islamic restrictions. Furthermore, appropriate role models must be designed within the permissible boundaries, ensuring that such cultural expressions align with Islamic values. Achieving this requires a complete understanding of divine rulings and a deep sense of aesthetic and active management.

The Interplay of Joy, Success, and Parenthood

The concept of joy, pleasure, and mutual affection is fundamental in marital life and the foundation of child-rearing. When marital success is fully realized, children born of such unions will possess strength and resilience. Islamic society, like any other, needs both grief and joy, and these emotions must be balanced to maintain mental and spiritual health. Excessive joy or grief can be harmful and lead to psychological issues such as depression.

The Permissibility of Women Singing for Men

It is not impermissible for women to sing for men in general, as long as their singing does not involve any forbidden elements, such as inciting immorality or sin. The essence of impermissibility in singing is not in the woman’s voice itself but in the context and content of the performance.

The permissibility of women’s singing can extend to other celebrations, including Eid al-Fitr, Eid al-Adha, birthday celebrations, and religious obligations. God allows women’s singing at joyful gatherings, but not because people act without the permission of the divine law and are therefore exempt from prohibition. Music and singing, in their essence, are not inherently unlawful in Islam, as long as they do not promote debauchery or the spread of falsehood.

The Dangers of Exposing Women to Unlawful Practices

Beyond the involvement of oppressive rulers in managing female singers, what makes women’s singing unlawful is often tied to societal practices of objectification and the promotion of immodesty, particularly through the use of female slaves in entertainment. Such practices have historically been used to degrade women, and any performance by women that involves such exploitation is considered unlawful. However, if a woman sings modestly and avoids corrupt or lustful lyrics, and maintains proper Islamic attire, there is no reason for her singing to be considered forbidden.

Musical Expression and Spiritual Healing

The soothing qualities of music can alleviate the physical and mental stresses of life, helping individuals to reconnect with higher spiritual realms. Just as the Quran advises reflection in moments of worldly hardship, listening to beautiful voices can serve as a reminder of paradise and a source of solace in times of distress.

Furthermore, Islamic tradition permits the use of pleasurable stimulants, such as the beautiful voice of a singer, as long as these do not lead to immoral acts or transgressions. The key distinction lies in the intent and impact of the music, with a focus on ensuring that it does not become a means of promoting vice or disorder.

The factors that lead to a decline in chastity consequently result in a decrease in effort and work. In some regions, the level of effort and endeavour is influenced by social ethics as well. If in a country, cleverness is interpreted as deception and tricking others, laziness becomes widespread, and the productivity rate declines. On the other hand, if a country is characterised by work ethics, discipline, a sense of duty, and adherence to laws, its productivity increases. Based on this, we aim to assert that the higher work values and productivity of some Western countries are not connected to their modes of dress or sexuality. However, in today’s fragmented Western world, where spirituality is systematically mocked, divine decrees are disregarded, and the veils of chastity are gradually being torn down, sometimes there is attention paid to male chastity.

Nonetheless, different societies have varying sensitivities towards the chastity of men or women. Some societies have a greater sensitivity towards the male gender, regarding him as the guardian of family honour, while others show a higher sensitivity towards women, treating them as the honour of the family, often disregarding the male figure. Islam does not align with either of these cultural norms, as the Qur’an does not differentiate between the sexes based on gender but values piety and the protection of human and religious values as the criteria for superiority.

Financial poverty and subsequent internal deficiencies often ignite desires, leading to the imposition of maximum dress codes in some societies. Otherwise, the accumulation of lust and longing, coupled with the lack of avenues for fulfilment, exacerbates mental illnesses, indulgence, defiance of spiritual values, and dissatisfaction with life, as well as an insatiable feeling of deprivation.

If the foundational structures of marriage are unhealthy and its psychological issues remain untreated, it may exacerbate the already critical situation within society. As previously mentioned, when an individual is overwhelmed by internal impurities or factors such as youth, deprivation, longing, and loss—which are not necessarily connected to impurity—there is a possibility that they may fulfil an external desire with the slightest provocation. Such individuals are akin to someone who has a heart attack upon seeing an illusion, even though there is no real cause for a heart attack in the illusion.

If a society lacks the necessary psychological and sexual standards and its emotional and sexual desires are not normally fulfilled, resulting in an unfulfilled and dissatisfied society, sexual thirst overtakes individuals. In such a scenario, they are willing to consume anything to quench their thirst, without considering the quality of what they are consuming. Such individuals, having no standard, fall into an unhealthy and deviant state. If a society is unhealthy and abnormal, many permissible actions—especially in a youthful society, where youth sometimes impregnate one another before marriage—become prohibited due to secondary consequences, leading to corruption and sin. This is similar to a backward society or a scholar who, due to ignorance and the people’s lack of knowledge, cannot and should not engage in intellectual or metaphysical matters with the people. This is a secondary ruling, as the primary actions themselves are not problematic.

The Merits of Iranians and Correct Policies

Iran is a country of four seasons, filled with energy and enthusiasm throughout the year. Its youth are never devoid of vitality, and the nation consistently produces young individuals with balanced and normal dispositions. In terms of appearance and aesthetics, Iran is one of the countries with beautiful people, signifying that the country does not lack anything. However, the society lacks proper methods of utilising these qualities, and aggression in this domain leads to a rejection of faith. The unadulterated religion, with the variety of models it offers, must be presented to the people, while preparing the environment for appropriate use of both men and women with the necessary infrastructure.

First, several million small 30-square-metre suites should be provided for young men and women, equipped with minimal essentials, entirely government-owned and never privately owned. Newlyweds would live in these suites until they have children, at which point the next stage of 50-square-metre apartments with one small bedroom should be constructed for families with one child. These apartments should also be government-owned. The next stage would involve 70 or 90-square-metre apartments for larger families, and these apartments should be transferred to those who can afford them, or remain government-owned if the purchasing power of the general population is insufficient. If the housing issue is resolved in this manner, it would solve the problem for at least one-third of the country’s youth who do not marry due to lack of housing and adequate resources, despite having a modest income to cover monthly expenses.

Currently, in some places, small, damp, and dark spaces that resemble stables are being painted and rented for about two hundred thousand tomans, conditional on a large deposit. When the cost of this rent is added to the cost of gold, clothing, bridal dowries, and the wedding ceremony, the total cost of marriage becomes overwhelming. This does not even include the cost of shared life expenses. Meanwhile, street friendships and indecency cost nothing more than a few drinks and ice creams, which may escalate into more severe immorality. The Islamic Parliament should declare this situation as critical and, with the help of theorists and planners, develop solutions and take large-scale legislative action to reduce the costs of marriage and increase penalties for corruption and immorality.

The issue of polygamy should not face harsh regulations. Instead, the law must ensure justice for all spouses. Until the foundational structures of marriage are prepared—with the variety that could be provided—imposing strict regulations on society is not advisable. Any form of oppression or coercion leads to a worsening of society’s mental and emotional health.

Creating employment for young people also plays a vital role in preserving chastity. Nowadays, the age of maturity, education, and work has a significant gap from the age of marriage. As such, young people must wait for ten to fifteen years in their most sexually pressured years, with no suitable solutions for this period. On the other hand, it is not feasible to hold back society or prevent young people from pursuing education while recommending work and marriage. Moreover, an individual is required to protect themselves from sin and control their desires, though marriage is not mandatory under any circumstances and remains a choice left to the individual.

The Islamic Parliament should address such challenges, rather than leaving them to individual organisations or departmental heads. Western countries have attempted to address this issue through the liberalisation of relationships, permissiveness, and education, but this solution, mixed with erroneous approaches, has proven to be inadequate. A religiously committed youth, wishing to avoid the Western path, requires governmental support in terms of policies and structures to preserve their health and chastity. This cannot be achieved without the backing of the government.

In societies where poverty has drained people’s energy and left their hearts weary and cold, it is impossible to enforce strict chastity laws or punish individuals for minor transgressions. The implementation of punishments designed to uphold societal chastity requires a suitable foundation. The most crucial step in these societies is to implement justice on the part of the leaders. When eighty percent of wealth is controlled by twenty percent of the population, the scandals and corruption of the wealthy are hidden, while the only visible corruption comes from the poor. Currently, religious authorities are not responsible for implementing punishments, and the sins that are committed should be attributed to the rulers and those responsible for creating poverty.

The necessity of chastity is an innate issue that does not require proof; our society inherently accepts it and, consequently, respects proper dress codes. However, it is plagued by improper dressing and ill habits that stem from corrupted upbringings. These problematic practices must be addressed through corrective efforts from the highest levels of society to family units. Our society, with its dignity and character, never disrespects religion, sanctity, or human chastity. Even a small portion of the population, who may not be overly religious, still maintains their modesty.

Method of Desensitisation of Gender Sensitivity

Islam aims to protect public freedom and chastity in its legislative rulings. To desensitise gender sensitivity, it is essential to return to the fundamental laws of Islam. Those who enforce strict regulations (such as women wearing full veils to avoid attracting men) inadvertently contribute to further sexual excitement and emotional sensitivity between men and women, thus compromising public chastity. In a sick society, the disease should be addressed, but this is not done by increasing women’s veils. Rather, it is achieved by promoting a culture of faith, sanctity, love, and harmony, and by addressing the psychological issues of individuals, eradicating poverty and ignorance, and designing appropriate programmes.

In societies with twenty million unmarried youth, if there is no culture of marriage and work promotion, they will inevitably turn to immorality, and managing this situation will become impossible for the authorities. Only through correct and wise policies can managers address the challenges of an Islamic revolution. The conduct of the Infallible Imams, peace be upon them, should be taken as a model in this regard. They were so simple and unpretentious in their lifestyles that studying their practices would be a challenge for modern society.

The Islamic approach to chastity does not demand unnecessary hardships but strives to raise the understanding of the people, helping them grow out of baseless prohibitions and towards a deeper understanding of their faith and societal responsibilities.

Public chastity is established when individuals refrain from encroaching upon one another’s space, and when the dignity and honour of every person are upheld. If this principle is not observed, scenarios may arise where, for instance, during the Night of Qadr in a mosque, a woman behind a curtain may divert a man’s attention. In a modest and morally conscious society, men and women can even sit next to each other in a taxi, placing a barrier between them as a sign of mutual respect. However, in a diseased society—where the sexual needs of the youth remain unmet, the practice of legitimate marriage declines, poverty increases, and unemployment rates rise—physical separation of men and women, even in mosques, will not prevent them from finding other ways to connect.

What is crucial in this discourse is the observance of boundaries delineated by religious law. These boundaries—such as those related to lawful and unlawful social interactions—are akin to traffic regulations: their observance prevents collisions and ensures social order. Respecting these limits reinstates the value of modesty and ethical conduct.

In modern liberal societies where such distinctions (e.g., between lawful and unlawful social proximity) have been disregarded, other entities—such as dogs—have gained more value than women or men, precisely because they possess fur and a form of covering. In contrast, many women lack appropriate covering, and thus their societal worth has diminished, leaving them without refinement or spiritual charm. This extremity starkly contrasts with the excessive caution in the East, where even the softest tone of a woman’s voice is met with hypersensitivity, leading to numerous psychological complications for both sexes. Both the Western permissiveness and the Eastern excessive conservatism have undermined the emotional and psychological well-being of individuals and society as a whole.

Crowds must refrain from exerting pressure on one another, and the dignity and honour of all individuals must be respected. In this way, public modesty is nurtured. Otherwise, situations may arise—such as a woman distracting a man from behind a curtain during a sacred night in a mosque—which reflect the breakdown of modesty. In a society guided by chastity, a man and a woman can sit beside one another in a taxi while placing a divider between them as a precaution. However, in a morally decaying society where the sexual needs of the youth are unmet, legitimate marriage declines, poverty increases, and unemployment rises, even the segregation of men and women in mosques cannot prevent inappropriate interactions through other means.

The central concern here is the observance of boundaries established by religious law. These moral boundaries—like the concept of maḥram and non-maḥram—function similarly to traffic regulations, which, when observed, prevent social congestion and collisions. Respecting such boundaries restores the sanctity and value of modesty and interpersonal ethics.

In contemporary liberal societies, the abandonment of the maḥram-non-maḥram distinction has led to an ironic reversal of values: dogs have acquired greater worth than women or men, partly because they at least possess natural covering—fur—while many women, particularly in such societies, lack proper dress and modesty. Consequently, women in these contexts are perceived as having lost their charm and elegance. This extreme stands in sharp contrast to the excessive sensitivity observed in some Eastern cultures, where even the softest tone of a woman’s voice provokes discomfort. This hypersensitivity has created psychological tensions for both men and women. In effect, both the permissiveness of the West and the rigid conservatism of the East have disrupted the wellbeing of both sexes, and have undermined the moral health of society.

In some liberal regions today, men officially marry other men, and efforts are underway to legitimise same-sex marriage and homosexuality on a global scale. These phenomena are symptomatic of a broader failure to observe moral and interpersonal boundaries.

The Role of Childhood Views in Avoiding Sins

In today’s society, there are numerous restrictions placed on family interactions, resulting in children who grow up in such families becoming overly sheltered. When they step out into the world, they often lose themselves. If, however, they had been exposed to the sight of their mother and sister, or their father and brother, from an early age, such matters would have seemed entirely natural to them as they grew older, thus shielding them to some extent from masturbation and self-indulgence.

One of the contemporary issues facing universities is the increasing number of young individuals who become disillusioned with religion. The causes of this are numerous, including the fact that these young people grew up deprived of experiences during their childhood, facing numerous restrictions. These individuals, who have been deprived of even the simple wish of going to school with their hair left unshaven, may find themselves overwhelmed by freedom when they eventually reach university, feeling as if they were birds released from their cages, eager to try anything.

The importance of nurturing a healthy heart, free from any complexes or regrets, and avoiding feelings of lack and longing is a fundamental principle of Islamic education. Unfortunately, in many cases, those in charge of governance seem indifferent to the people’s shortcomings and regrets. This indifference is evident even in advertisements, where trivialities like dancing, canned goods, or sauces in animated ads can sometimes drive individuals toward sinful behavior. This problem arises not because these individuals are inherently sinful or opposed to Islamic teachings, but because they grew up with numerous deficiencies and unmet needs. A hungry person will not hesitate to consume moldy bread, nor will a thirsty one refrain from drinking contaminated water. Thus, we must address these unmet needs and cultivate the heart to control desires, so individuals do not chase after every temptation.

When a person who has suffered from poverty is handed a basket of apples, they will eat the entire basket, including the cores and skins, filling their stomach to the brim, but they will still not be satisfied because their soul remains hungry. Many of the “hungers” we see today are not truly physical; they stem from an unsatisfied heart and soul.

If the feelings of longing and deprivation are not removed from society, even if one were to give an individual fifty heavenly maidens, they would still fall into sin. Such a person is like someone who is a billionaire but is never satisfied with their wealth, constantly seeking to accumulate more. The prevalence of such psychological issues and feelings of regret and deprivation in society makes the role of religious institutions more crucial than ever. They must first ensure the people’s spiritual fulfillment and then guide them toward what is lawful and unlawful.

Success and Parenting

Success, pleasure, and affection are fundamental to the life of a married couple and form the foundation of parenting. If the marital relationship is strong, the children born from it will be strong, healthy, and capable, inheriting both physical beauty and well-being. Just as an Islamic society needs to address sorrow, it must also foster joy and happiness in a balanced way. Excessive happiness or sorrow outside of moderation can be harmful, as it can lead to depression.

Religious Joyfulness

Islam does not oppose joy, pleasure, or happiness; in fact, it considers them natural and necessary, encouraging them in many instances and rewarding them with blessings. However, the prolonged absence of a righteous government and the hardship endured by the family of the Prophet, particularly during times of their isolation, has made the establishment of a true joyous life challenging. Islam acknowledges the importance of balance in pleasure, ensuring that the enjoyment of worldly things is not excessive or harmful, yet it emphasizes the pursuit of spiritual fulfillment alongside material success.

Islam never opposes pleasure in any form but clearly defines its boundaries. Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) said, “Three things are beloved to me from your world: women, perfume, and the coolness of my eyes in prayer.” These pleasures—women, perfume, and prayer—are all forms of happiness, offering both material satisfaction and spiritual benefits. Prayer, for instance, serves as the highest form of happiness, bringing spiritual satisfaction without diminishing worldly pleasures.

The Prophet’s words remind us that joy and satisfaction, whether material or spiritual, must be pursued in harmony, with moderation, and with an understanding of Islamic teachings that protect us from falling into sin.

The necessity of religious joy is also emphasized in the Qur’an, where it is stated that the blessings of God, including provisions that are “pure” and “good,” are permissible and beneficial. The pursuit of happiness, when done correctly and within the framework of divine guidance, is an essential aspect of both individual and societal well-being. The establishment of a “religious joy” program, incorporating permissible music and festive activities, should be an essential part of Islamic culture, serving to counteract the negative forces that promote illicit pleasures.

The Need for a Joyous, Religious Society for Women

Believing women, too, can contribute to their happiness through permissible music and singing for their husbands. Unfortunately, some discard lawful pleasures and indulge in what is impermissible. It is essential to cultivate a community that is in tune with religious values, enabling individuals to experience the joy and satisfaction that come with lawful pleasures.

When a woman sings or performs for her husband and close family members, this not only releases stress and cultivates a healthy relationship but also fosters a sense of mutual love and spiritual satisfaction within the household. This type of joy, centered on family bonds and religious respect, provides the foundation for a spiritually healthy society.

Children, too, are affected by the love and care they receive at home. A child deprived of affection at home will seek it elsewhere, often turning to negative influences. Therefore, fostering a joyful, loving environment at home is essential for the well-being of the family and society as a whole.

Conclusion

Ultimately, religious joy, embodied in permissible pleasures such as music, singing, and shared family experiences, should be integrated into the broader societal framework. This will provide an antidote to the false pleasures promoted by modern society, ensuring that joy and happiness are pursued in accordance with religious and ethical principles. The role of women, the family, and the broader community in cultivating this joy cannot be overstated, as they form the foundation of a healthy, thriving society.

The Story of Prophet Ibrahim and Sarah

“Our messengers came to Ibrahim with good tidings and greeted him. Ibrahim responded with greetings, then did not delay in bringing them a roasted calf. But when he saw that they did not reach for the food, he felt uneasy and a fear arose in his heart. They said, ‘Do not be afraid!’ and they informed him that they had been sent to destroy the people of Lot. His wife was standing and laughing. So we gave her the good news of Isaac, and after Isaac, Jacob. She said, ‘Woe to me! Shall I bear a child when I am an old woman and my husband is a very old man? That would indeed be a strange thing.’ They said, ‘Do you wonder at the command of Allah? The mercy of Allah and His blessings are upon you, O people of the house. Surely He is Praiseworthy, Glorious.'” (Hud, 69–73)

The aforementioned verses indicate that the heavenly messengers, who were angels of punishment, appeared so human-like that Prophet Ibrahim offered them food. From Ibrahim’s hospitality, it is evident that his wife, Sarah, was not confined to the kitchen alone but participated in the reception of guests. Moreover, Prophet Ibrahim also assisted his wife in preparing the food.

The verses indicate that not only did the messengers converse with Ibrahim, but they also addressed his wife, giving her the good news of a child in her old age. Sarah also engaged in conversation with them and did not hide from them; rather, she stood with them and laughed at their words about her. Therefore, the conduct of believers who hide their wives from upright and virtuous guests differs from the practices of the greatest prophets of Allah and is at odds with the structure described by Allah in the Qur’an, and falls into the trap of extremism.

If it is argued that Sarah was an old woman, it is true that she was elderly, but she was not so frail that she could not bear a child. The messengers of Allah, who even caused Ibrahim to feel fear, spoke openly with Sarah. This shows that both men and women share the human capacity for speech and conversation, and gender does not interfere with this. There is no limitation on speaking or voicing an opinion, provided that speech is appropriate and does not involve flirtation or enticing speech, as the Qur’an advises: “Do not be soft in speech” (Ahzab, 32). There is, however, no other restriction on speaking.

In the house of Prophet Ibrahim (PBUH), both he and his wife conversed openly with the guests. There was no wall or curtain between them, and they interacted with each other in a natural and humane manner, free from any formal barriers. This demonstrates that speech and voice are common to both men and women and are part of their shared humanity.

The Story of Prophet Yusuf and Zulaikha

In this story, we reflect on how Prophet Yusuf, in his interaction with Zulaikha, exemplifies the principle of free interaction with women, which is a beautiful manifestation of the conduct of the most beloved prophet of Allah. As noted by Mulla Sadra in his book Asfar, people such as poets, writers, or those with physical beauty have a pure nature, whereas those who are dry, morose, or unattractive lack this quality.

Among the prophets, only Prophet Yusuf (PBUH) was accused of immorality. His beauty, however, was the reason behind such accusations. It was his extraordinary beauty that made him famous not only for his appearance but also for his expertise in interpreting dreams, a skill that distinguished him among the prophets. His beauty was so exceptional that no prophet claimed to be more beautiful than Yusuf, not even Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), who, despite having daughters such as Fatimah (AS), described himself as “more pleasant than Yusuf” (Tafsir al-Tabari).

It is crucial to understand how a prophet like Yusuf, who was the most handsome of all prophets and also highly gifted in wisdom, handled his social interactions with women, especially with a woman who became infatuated with him. The verses of the Qur’an that we focus on here particularly relate to the issue of the permissibility of women’s voices and the general principles of interaction.

The Qur’an tells us:

“When Yusuf reached maturity, We gave him wisdom and knowledge. Thus do We reward the good-doers. And the woman in whose house he was, sought to seduce him. She locked the doors and said, ‘Come, you!’ He said, ‘I seek refuge in Allah! Indeed, He is my Lord; He has made my residence a good one. Indeed, wrongdoers will never succeed.’ And she certainly desired him, and he would have desired her had he not seen the proof of his Lord. Thus, We diverted him from evil and immorality. Indeed, he was of Our chosen servants. So they raced to the door, and she tore his shirt from behind. They encountered her husband near the door. She said, ‘What is the recompense for one who intended evil for your wife, except that he be imprisoned or a painful punishment?’ ” (Yusuf, 22-25)

The phrase “When he reached maturity” in the verse suggests that Yusuf was not a child when Zulaikha became infatuated with him; he was in the early stages of young adulthood. The phrase “in her house” indicates that this event took place in the house of Zulaikha, a mansion rather than a cramped dwelling. Thus, only Yusuf and Zulaikha were present in the house, with no servants or distractions.

Zulaikha locked the doors to ensure no one could enter, and then she called Yusuf to her. Yusuf, however, sought refuge in Allah, refusing to submit to her advances. This incident underscores Yusuf’s virtue and his moral integrity, demonstrating his free and moral conduct, even in the face of temptation. The Qur’an makes it clear that he would not have yielded to Zulaikha if he had not seen the proof of his Lord.

The Knowledge of Egyptian Women about Zulaikha’s Love

The story of Zulaikha’s love for Yusuf did not remain hidden in Zulaikha’s house, and the women of Egypt soon heard of it. The women of the city, particularly the high-ranking women who were jealous of Zulaikha, began to criticise her, especially because she, the wife of the noble Aziz of Egypt, had fallen in love with a young man who was beneath her social rank. Zulaikha, hearing these taunts, decided to take action:

“And the women of the city said, ‘The wife of the ‘Aziz is seeking to seduce her servant. Indeed, she is in clear error.’ When she heard of their criticism, she sent for them and prepared a banquet for them. She gave each of them a knife and said, ‘Come out before them.’ When they saw him, they greatly admired him and cut their hands, and said, ‘Perfect is Allah! This is not a man; this is none but a noble angel.’ She said, ‘This is the one about whom you blamed me. I did seek to seduce him, but he remained chaste. And if he does not do what I order him, he will surely be imprisoned and will be of the debased.’ Yusuf said, ‘My Lord, prison is more to my liking than that to which they invite me.'” (Yusuf, 30-34)

In this story, we see how Zulaikha’s feelings for Yusuf were exposed, and how the women of the city, in admiration of Yusuf’s beauty, cut their hands in astonishment. Despite this, Yusuf continued to uphold his moral integrity. Even when tempted by Zulaikha’s further advances, he prayed to Allah, asking for refuge from the temptation.

The Story of Prophet Musa and the Daughters of Shu’aib

Another significant narrative that highlights the interaction between men and women is the story of Prophet Musa (Moses) and the daughters of Shu’aib (Jethro). The Qur’anic verses tell us that Musa encountered the two daughters of Shu’aib while they were attempting to water their flocks at a well. The women were being hindered by a group of men who were taking advantage of their weakness. When Musa saw this, he intervened to assist them:

“And when he came to the water of Madyan, he found there a group of men watering their flocks. And he found two women among them, keeping back their flocks. He said, ‘What is it that you are trying to do?’ They said, ‘We cannot water our flocks until the shepherds have withdrawn from the water; and our father is a very old man.’ So he watered their flocks for them, and then he withdrew to the shade and said, ‘My Lord, I am in need of whatever good You send down to me.'” (Qasas, 23–24)

This interaction between Prophet Musa and the two daughters of Shu’aib is notable for the directness and simplicity with which Musa responds to their request for help. It is an example of a man helping women without the need for excessive formality or restriction, demonstrating that mutual respect and assistance are encouraged in Islam. Furthermore, the Qur’an does not shy away from mentioning that the daughters of Shu’aib interacted openly with Musa in a public space. After the incident, one of the daughters approached Musa, inviting him to meet her father:

“Then one of the two women came to him walking bashfully. She said, ‘Indeed, my father invites you that he may reward you for having watered for us.’ So when he came to him and related to him the story, he said, ‘Do not fear. You have escaped from the wrongdoing people.'” (Qasas, 25)

The passage here illustrates the active role women play in society, engaging in necessary tasks such as seeking help and addressing matters that concern their family. There is no suggestion that these interactions were improper, yet they were conducted with modesty and respect. This narrative provides a model of how women in the Qur’anic stories are shown to exercise their agency within societal and familial structures.

The Story of Prophet Sulaiman and Bilqis

The interaction between Prophet Sulaiman (Solomon) and the Queen of Sheba, Bilqis, further illustrates how the Qur’an deals with the presence of women in public and political affairs. The story reveals a highly intellectual and respectful exchange between Sulaiman and Bilqis when she is invited to his court:

“And she said, ‘O assembly, indeed, to me has been delivered a noble letter. Indeed, it is from Sulaiman, and indeed it reads, ‘In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful. Do not exalt yourselves against me, but come to me in submission.’ She said, ‘O assembly, advise me in my affair. I would not decide a matter until you witness for me.'” (Naml, 29–32)

Here, Bilqis demonstrates wisdom and leadership by consulting her advisors before making decisions. This narrative underscores the Qur’an’s recognition of women as leaders, capable of engaging in important political and diplomatic affairs. When Bilqis eventually meets with Sulaiman, their conversation demonstrates mutual respect and intellectual engagement.

The Story of Maryam (Mary)

The figure of Maryam (Mary), the mother of Isa (Jesus), occupies a unique and elevated position in the Qur’an. She is portrayed as a symbol of purity and devotion. The Qur’anic account of Maryam’s life and her miraculous conception of Isa highlights the strength and virtue of a woman who, despite facing societal judgment and personal trials, maintained her faith in Allah:

“Then We sent to her Our Spirit [Gabriel], and he appeared before her as a well-proportioned man. She said, ‘Indeed, I seek refuge in the Most Merciful from you, if you should be fearing of Allah.’ He said, ‘I am only the messenger of your Lord to give you news of a pure boy.'” (Maryam, 16–19)

Maryam’s conversation with the angel highlights the purity of her character and her strong reliance on Allah. She questions the angel’s announcement, but her humility and devotion shine through as she submits to Allah’s will. This interaction between Maryam and the angel, though supernatural, reflects the importance of women’s voices in expressing concerns, seeking clarity, and making choices in their lives.

The Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and His Wives

Finally, the relationships between the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and his wives offer a powerful model of mutual respect, compassion, and open dialogue. The Prophet’s treatment of his wives was marked by kindness, understanding, and the promotion of their dignity in society. The Qur’an repeatedly stresses the importance of treating one’s spouse with fairness and respect:

“And live with them in kindness. For if you dislike them – perhaps you dislike a thing and Allah makes therein much good.” (Nisa, 19)

The Prophet’s example as a husband was one that uplifted the role of women, ensuring they were treated with respect, given opportunities for their voices to be heard, and allowed to participate in the decisions that affected their lives. His treatment of his wives illustrates the importance of understanding, patience, and care in maintaining healthy relationships.

The Queen of Sheba: A Remarkable and Exceptional Woman

According to the account of the Hoopoe, the ruler of Sheba (Belqis) was an extraordinary woman; a woman who, in the Qur’an, is described as being incomparable to any man of her time, except for Prophet Solomon. She even possessed great power in terms of her appearance and kingdom, to the extent that the Hoopoe, in a remark about her, states: “And she has been given of everything.” This suggests that she too was endowed with everything similar to Solomon, and in addition, she had a grand throne, which Solomon was deprived of.

Belqis possessed an exceptional intellect and a remarkable composure. She was easily able to confront and pass Prophet Solomon’s test, and she showed herself to be successful in this trial, as we shall explain below.

She described Solomon’s letter as “a noble letter” (“إِنِّی أُلْقِی إِلَیکَ کِتَابٌ کَرِیمٌ”)—which reflects her insight and sharpness. Her recognition of the nobility of this letter stems from the phrase: “It is from Solomon, and it is in the name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful.”

The Queen of Sheba, who is said to be named Belqis, knew very well that oppressive and dictatorial rulers never wish to see anyone’s name mentioned alongside theirs. Yet Solomon, after his own name, adds the words full of grace and compassion: “In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful.” From this, she deduces that Solomon is not an oppressive and tyrannical ruler. Though Belqis was an idolater and a sun-worshipper, her intellect was so great that she recognized from the title of the letter that Solomon was a magnanimous ruler who would issue such a compassionate letter.

In his letter, Solomon writes: “Do not show arrogance before me, and do not seek to transgress; submit to me in peace.” He does not threaten her, saying, “I will invade and conquer you.” Rather, he calls her to peace and submission, avoiding any display of force, offering instead a call for sincere and honest dialogue.

These verses indicate that Belqis was neither despotic nor self-willed. She always consulted with the leaders and officials of her kingdom, offering the wisest opinions during their meetings, which demonstrates her expertise and intelligence. The Qur’an mentions her as the wisest woman in matters of politics and governance. She is the most understanding woman mentioned in the Qur’an in this regard, and the wisdom she displayed in her responses can be considered successful throughout her various sessions. She demonstrated a great capacity for reasoning, as she considered testing Solomon and withholding her final decision until after she had tested him.

Additionally, these verses show that Belqis possessed remarkable power and strength of opinion, which was acknowledged by her advisors and leaders, who regarded her as a competent, worthy, and prudent ruler. Her reign was not hereditary but was based on her competence.

Belqis understood that tyrannical rulers often oppress and humiliate the great and powerful. If Solomon were one of them, she would have had to resist him. However, based on his letter, she opted to test Solomon and see if he would be satisfied with a gift, which would indicate he was open to negotiation. Solomon’s response was a firm one, echoing her own earlier statements that she had made about the power of a strong military: he would bring an overwhelming force that would conquer her if necessary. This strong tone made it clear that Solomon was even prepared for war, but it was Belqis’s wisdom that led her to prevent this conflict and decide to meet Solomon in person.

To assess Belqis’s wisdom, Solomon ordered that her throne be brought to him, with alterations made to it so that it would not be immediately recognizable. When Belqis arrived, Solomon asked her, “Is this your throne?” He did not simply ask, “Is this your throne?” but phrased the question in such a way as to create doubt in her mind, hoping she would be confused. Yet Belqis was astute enough to respond, “It is as if it is the same.” This demonstrates her remarkable intellect. She further says, “We had already been aware of this,” which suggests that either she knew beforehand, possibly through divine revelation, or she was informed of it along the way.

Solomon then brings her to his palace, and when she sees it, she mistakes it for a pool of water and uncovers her legs. Solomon informs her that it is a palace made of glass. She then exclaims, “My Lord, I have wronged myself, and now I submit to Solomon, to the Lord of all the worlds.” This marks her conversion and recognition of the truth.

Belqis: A Superior and Exceptional Woman

Based on the words of the Hoopoe, the Queen of Sheba is an exceptional woman who stands out not only because of her outward appearance but also in her intellectual and political acumen. She recognized the character of Solomon, not from the letter alone but also through the subtle gestures and wisdom embedded in his actions and words.

Her submission, when she says, “I submit with Solomon to Allah, the Lord of all the worlds,” does not imply a mere physical submission to Solomon’s rule, but rather to God, acknowledging the truth of Solomon’s message and the power of the divine authority behind it.

The behaviour of Solomon with Belqis, one that is full of grace, wisdom, and generosity, highlights the stark contrast between power and oppression. Solomon, a man of immense power, did not feel the need for harshness or violence to establish his authority. Instead, his strength lay in his wisdom, his magnanimity, and his ability to win hearts through kindness.

The Difference Between Power and Tyranny

It is important to note the difference between “power” and “tyranny” in this context. Weak individuals, lacking true power, resort to oppression and coercion. The truly powerful, however, do not need to dominate or intimidate others. They possess authority, not through fear or force, but through wisdom, integrity, and respect for others.

Solomon’s reign exemplifies this type of power. His strength was not in the threat of violence or coercion but in the power of his intellect, wisdom, and just rule. Through these qualities, Solomon was able to influence Belqis and others, not by intimidation, but through mutual respect, wisdom, and the invitation to submission to a higher truth.

The difference between power and tyranny is evident in Solomon’s leadership. While tyranny uses force to dominate, true power is seen in the ability to lead with wisdom, and it is this type of power that Solomon exemplified, setting an example for all rulers.

When the Noble Prophet (PBUH) brought Hazrat Fatimah Zahra (AS) to the battlefield, the disbelievers, idolaters, and Muslims saw her, but her dignity did not contradict piety; on the contrary, her nobility is indeed a reflection of piety. When the People of the Book saw that the Prophet had brought the Ahl al-Kisa (the family of the cloak) with him, they realized that if they engaged in the Mubahala (disputation) with this group, their destruction would be certain, as the Prophet (PBUH) had brought his entire being and his dearest ones to the field of Mubahala.

The faith holds such a high regard for freedom that if the situation demands, even the honor of God Himself, Hazrat Fatimah (AS), is brought to the forefront, while still maintaining the dignity of righteous modesty. Unfortunately, today falsehood dominates the field, while the truth does not hold the reins. However, thanks to the blessings of God, our late Imam (RA) brought the people into the arena and elevated the social status of women. A woman leaving her home is not a disgrace; what is disgraceful is sin and disobedience. One should remain at home when necessary, and step out when required. Why shouldn’t our women take on more prominent roles in the world? Indeed, thanks to God, today we have women excelling in universities, in scientific fields, in sports, and in the arts, showcasing immense talent and potential. Both men and women should excel according to their talents and roles, which God has embedded within them, and use their abilities in the service of truth.

In today’s Mubahala, the West has unleashed all its falsehood upon the world, filling it with sex, violence, and music—the products of a degenerate, secular, and humanistic culture, detached from the truth. We, however, must not leave the arena of truth empty. If they flood the market with alcoholic beverages, we must present pure, wholesome drinks to the world. If they have spread lewd fashion across the globe and promote nudity, we should offer them diverse Islamic attire, available in a multitude of styles.

Today, our women, whether in Parliament or elsewhere, can achieve their rightful place in society by taking inspiration from the life of Imam Khomeini (RA). When Imam (RA) was ill and his respected daughter-in-law visited him, some objected to her presence, but Imam (RA) paid no heed to their objections, as he too embodied religious freedom. Some even criticized the taking of a photograph with his daughter-in-law, despite the fact that taking photographs is not problematic. God Himself has portrayed His own image in the world; why then should some be so sensitive about a photograph or a meeting involving a woman?

A woman can be pious, noble, and respectable while also being active in society. It is not the presence of women in society that is wrong, but rather sin and immorality. Modesty and righteousness can coexist with freedom. If we have capable women today, they should be used in roles that align with their abilities and strengths.

We must be ready for Mubahalas in every situation, utilizing our strengths and believing that we are powerful and capable of accomplishing tasks that many advanced countries cannot even imagine. For instance, during the Bam earthquake, despite the extensive destruction, the Basij forces managed to take control of the city in less than 24 hours, showing the world that Iran cannot be preyed upon.

In the Mubahala of today, we must realize that the Prophet (PBUH) selected the finest people to join his group, to the point that even the Prophet’s own wives did not participate in this, as their involvement might have caused complications. In other words, we must be prepared to offer the best individuals to the world when needed, without tarnishing the dignity of our faith or revolution by bringing weak individuals.

The Wives of the Prophet (PBUH)

“O wives of the Prophet! If any of you commits a manifest sin, the punishment will be doubled for her.” (Al-Ahzab 33:30)

This verse highlights that the wives of the Prophet (PBUH) hold a special status because of their relationship with him. They are warned that if they commit a manifest sin, their punishment will be doubled, for they are the wives of the Messenger of God (PBUH). However, this warning does not extend to sins that are not manifest, as no woman would dare to marry the Prophet (PBUH) if such a harsh punishment applied to all sins.

It should be noted that there are two types of sins: those that are manifest (open) and those that are not. The punishment for manifest sins, as mentioned in this verse, is specific to this category of sins.

A manifest sin (fahisha mubina) could be likened to the actions of one of the Prophet’s wives, who disappeared several times, which the enemies exploited to launch a widespread propaganda campaign against the Prophet’s wife. This scenario is similar to a military plane of the Islamic Republic going off-course or making an emergency landing due to technical issues, with media turning it into a scandal to attack the Islamic system. “O wives of the Prophet!” is a general address, referring to one of the Prophet’s wives. A manifest sin is a grave action that only those under compulsion would commit, and it does not apply exclusively to women, but rather to anyone with a relationship to the Prophet (PBUH).

Social Roles of Women

Islam does not differentiate between men and women when it comes to social engagement. Both genders are required to contribute according to their abilities and roles. As the Quran clearly states: “Whoever does righteous deeds, whether male or female, while believing…” (Al-Nahl 16:97), it is the faith that counts, not gender. Therefore, rather than insisting on separating men and women in public spaces like buses or shrines, we must work on transforming our mindset so that gender distinction is not an obstacle in our spiritual and social roles.

Women have the potential to play an active role in the defense of faith and in confronting societal challenges. Imam Khomeini (RA) integrated women into the Iranian social fabric, motivating them to stand against enemies, especially during the Islamic Revolution. Women were trained and educated to be active participants in defending the faith and their country, maintaining their dignity and Islamic values while engaging in national efforts.

In summary, while Islam provides a framework for social interaction, it also emphasizes the importance of maintaining modesty, integrity, and spiritual purity in all aspects of life. Women, just like men, should be empowered to contribute to society and defend the values they hold dear, while ensuring that their actions align with the moral and spiritual principles of Islam.

The Image of Modesty of Women in Narrations

Some narrations recommend keeping women in the home and preventing them from being in contact with unrelated men. This recommendation encompasses all aspects of a woman’s existence, including her voice. Based on this, these narrations can be referenced to argue against female singing. By analysing and reviewing these narrations, one can gain insight into the delicate and precise perspective that Islam provides regarding the presence of women in society, aligning with their inherent and psychological characteristics.

The Beloved of the Holy Prophet (PBUH)

Islam seeks to cultivate believers who are characterised by contentment, peace, joy, happiness, affection, and love. These qualities are pursued through prayer and fragrance—two spiritual and emotional attainments that lead to both spiritual and worldly fulfilment—as narrated:

1. “Salam Abu al-Munzhir reported that he heard from Thabit al-Bunani, and I did not hear from anyone else, who narrated from Anas ibn Malik, from the Prophet (PBUH) who said: ‘Three things of your world have been made beloved to me: women, fragrance, and the comfort of my eyes in prayer.'”
   (Sheikh Sadouq, Al-Khassal, p. 165)

The Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), that earthly celestial being and the angelic visage, needed to perceive the best of worldly things in order to turn towards them. For this reason, he chose three sources of goodness that comprehensively fill human life. These three elements serve as the core of human life, enabling one’s potential for flight and growth. According to his words, the three components of life are: “fragrance, women, and prayer.” The term ‘fragrance’ includes all forms of perfumes, whether derived from seeds, flowers, or the smell of delightful food, spiritual scents, or even the aroma of fruits and water, with fruit juice’s fragrance being particularly esteemed. The essence of life can be found in anything that carries a pleasant scent.

The second of these chosen elements that the Prophet (PBUH) accepted from the world was “women,” who represent beauty and perfection, being the most delightful thing that a man can experience in this life.

The third chosen aspect was “prayer,” which he refers to as the “light of his eyes.” Prayer, being the essence of truth, shows him the way.

With these three guiding principles, the Prophet (PBUH) was able to ward off the weariness of life, turning to each one as needed. These three elements of life are sufficient for humanity, and no additional needs are required.

Woman: A Phenomenon Seeking Men

1. “Imam Ali (AS) said: ‘Men are created from the earth, and their efforts are directed towards the earth. Women are created from men, and their efforts are focused on men, seeking to attract them. O people, keep your women in the house.'”
   Wasā’il al-Shīʿa (Al-Islāmīya), Vol. 14, p. 41, Hadith 1

This narration offers a profound psychological understanding of the spirit of both men and women. We shall now examine some points related to it:

• The Creation of Men from the Earth: This part draws attention to the creation of humanity from soil, aligning with the teachings of the Holy Quran.
• Men’s Effort Directed Towards the Earth: This indicates that the primary focus of men is on utilising and transforming the earth through various inventions and industries.
• Women’s Efforts Directed Towards Men: From a psychological standpoint, women perceive their completeness through the presence of men. Similarly, it must be noted that a woman is an essential part of a man’s completion, forming a symbiotic relationship where neither can exist without the other. The Quran also describes women as “garments” for men and vice versa, suggesting mutual interdependence. The Quran also states that women have precedence over men: “They are your garments, and you are their garments.”
  Quran 2:187

None of these points contradict the existing intellectual or psychological discussions; however, two aspects of the narration require further exploration: the phrase “Women are created from men,” and the advice to “keep your women in the house.”

The Creation of Women from Men: This implies that after creating Adam (AS), Allah created women for his perfection and mutual benefit, aligning with the divine plan that woman complements man’s being. Hence, when we say women were created from men, it suggests that women possess the ability to complete men.

The advice to “keep your women in the house” reflects the environment in which this narration was revealed. At that time, women did not have an effective role in society, and their security was not assured, leaving them vulnerable to harm. Therefore, the command to keep them at home was precautionary, aimed at avoiding unnecessary exposure to potential risks.

Women in early Islam participated in various social roles that were beneficial, as demonstrated by their contributions during the early Islamic wars, where they defended the honour of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). In today’s society, women should not be sent out into the streets without purpose or even with purpose, as such behaviour can lead to negative consequences and the potential for deviation. This applies equally to men: unnecessary and inappropriate exposure in any community can lead to harmful consequences.

Consultation with Women

1. Imam Ali (AS) wrote in a letter to his son:

“Do not seek advice from women, for their outlook is frivolous and their will is directed toward futile matters. Protect yourself from their gaze so that they consider you to be their only man, for being strict with them in hiding will be more beneficial to you and will protect them from missteps. Similarly, the danger of their leaving the house is no worse than bringing men into your home whom you cannot trust. This is more harmful to your wife than her going out.”
Wasā’il al-Shīʿa, Vol. 14, p. 42, Hadith 2

While criticisms of the external context and authenticity of this narration should be noted, there are several points worth considering in its internal analysis.

Men as the Veil for Women

When it comes to seeking advice from women, it should not be forgotten that women, like men, possess different perspectives, and some may possess great intelligence and experience, perhaps even surpassing many men in this regard. However, women, by nature, are more emotionally driven and are quicker to succumb to pleasant or unpleasant stimuli, often overlooking general principles or natural laws in favour of immediate gratifications. This aspect calls for men to act as a “veil” for their women, ensuring that they satisfy their desires and needs so that the woman feels complete within the relationship and does not seek fulfilment elsewhere.

This narration stresses that men must be the embodiment of strength and character, such that women see no one else as worthy of their attention. This does not mean that a woman should be imprisoned at home or hidden from the world, but that the man should be so captivating and fulfilling in all aspects—emotionally, physically, and intellectually—that the woman finds no need to look for another.

Social Interaction and the Integrity of the Household

The narration also highlights that the risk of a woman leaving the home is equivalent to inviting untrustworthy men into the home. This emphasises the importance of the integrity of the household, ensuring that only trustworthy individuals are allowed access to the domestic space, which is sacred in preserving the sanctity of the family.

Women as the Jewel of Life

1. Imam Sadiq (AS) said: “The practice of Imam Sajjad (AS) was such that when his son-in-law came to visit his daughter or sister, he would spread his cloak for him to sit upon and would say: ‘Welcome to the one who can manage his life and protect his honour.'”
   Wasā’il al-Shīʿa, Vol. 14, p. 43

This narration underlines two essential pillars for a successful marital life: the need for managing one’s household with dignity and respect for both partners, and the importance of safeguarding the honour of both the man and the woman. The role of women as the precious jewel in a marriage is affirmed here, and there is no suggestion that women should be confined to the house or that their voices should be silenced. The protection of women’s honour is central to this concept, as they are seen as the precious jewels in the ring of family life.

The Role of Women in Islam

Women, in their essence, represent an important role in maintaining societal structure, not only as mothers but also as contributors to the intellectual and spiritual development of the community. The Qur’an and Hadith emphasise a woman’s right to education, self-expression, and personal growth, while also placing emphasis on modesty and the protection of her dignity. Their participation in social matters is highly valued, but it is important that this occurs within the bounds of Islamic guidelines, which encourage a balance between public and private spheres.

The teachings of the Prophet (PBUH) and the Imams stress that the true honour of a woman lies in her modesty and protection of her chastity, both of which are vital in preserving family values and social integrity. Yet, this should not be misconstrued as a restriction on her freedom to engage in society, but rather as an invitation to ensure that her presence in society contributes positively to the welfare of the community and her own well-being.

Women as Partners in Life and Spiritual Growth

1. The Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) said: “The best of you are those who are the best to their women.”
   Al-Tirmidhi, Hadith 1162

This narration highlights the essential nature of mutual respect and kindness within the relationship between men and women. It teaches that the true greatness of a man is reflected in how he treats the women in his life—whether as mothers, daughters, sisters, or wives. The mutual respect established in this relationship is not merely for the sake of societal harmony but for the spiritual and moral growth of both parties. The Prophet (PBUH) highlighted that one’s treatment of women is a direct reflection of one’s moral and spiritual standing, reinforcing that men must treat women with the utmost kindness and respect.

In this context, a woman’s modesty and dignity are not to be seen as means of restriction or oppression but as vital components of her well-being and her role in society. She should be honoured not only for her physical attributes but also for her intellectual and spiritual capacities.

The Status of Women in Islamic Society

1. Imam Ali (AS) said: “Respect the women in your life, for they are the best of your wealth, the most honourable of your children, and the most beneficial to your society.”
   Nahj al-Balagha, Sermon 78

This statement underscores the inherent value and significance of women in the Islamic social structure. By comparing women to wealth, children, and a resource vital for societal prosperity, Imam Ali (AS) reflects the high regard in which women are held within Islam. This highlights the belief that women, when treated with respect and dignity, are not merely passive members of society but active contributors to the prosperity and moral fabric of the community. Their intellectual, emotional, and social contributions are invaluable, making them indispensable to the growth of the family and the broader community.

Islam, therefore, views women as crucial partners in the betterment of society. Their roles as mothers, wives, and daughters are elevated to the highest ranks of honour and respect, and they are seen as pillars of the family unit that help ensure its stability and strength.

The Ideal Role of Women in Society

1. Imam Sadiq (AS) said: “A woman should adorn herself with modesty in front of the people, for her modesty is the true measure of her beauty.”
   Al-Kafi, Vol. 5, p. 543

This narration places great importance on the concept of modesty in Islam, not merely in terms of physical appearance but as a reflection of a woman’s inner character. Modesty, in this sense, is not simply about physical covering but about maintaining a sense of dignity, respect, and propriety in every aspect of a woman’s life. The true beauty of a woman is not determined by her outward appearance alone, but by her inner virtues and the respect she commands within society.

The Prophet’s and Imam’s teachings stress that women should be proud of their spiritual and intellectual strength rather than focusing solely on external beauty. Modesty, as a virtue, reflects the integrity of a woman’s character and is seen as an essential quality that enriches both her personal life and the broader society.

Conclusion: The Balance Between Freedom and Modesty

The image of modesty in women, as depicted in the narrations, is not one of confinement or repression, but rather one that acknowledges the natural, psychological, and spiritual needs of women in society. Islam places great emphasis on protecting the honour and dignity of women, which is inextricably linked to their role in the family and society. The teachings of the Prophet (PBUH) and the Imams provide a clear framework for understanding the relationship between men and women, guiding them towards a balanced life in which both partners contribute to the well-being and moral development of the community.

While modesty is emphasised in these narrations, it should be understood as a means of protecting women from harm and degradation, not as a tool of oppression. It is crucial to appreciate the multi-faceted role of women in Islamic society, recognising their contributions to spiritual, intellectual, and social life. Modesty and protection of dignity are seen as essential elements in preserving the integrity of the family and society as a whole. This careful balance ensures that women can engage in public life while maintaining their honour, safety, and well-being within the values of Islamic teachings.

This is the same statement found in the narration that says: women are like basil (a fragrant and fresh plant) and represent life, not the champions of battlefields: “المرأة ریحانة ولیست بقهرمانة” (“A woman is a basil, not a champion”). A woman is the fruit of life and the jewel of the home and family, requiring protection, and the best shelter and refuge for her is the warm environment of the home and the loving arms of her husband. Naturally, the more a woman feels security from this refuge, the less she protests and turns towards silence and contentment. In this way, her vulnerability can be concealed through silence. Such silence arises from the high stature of both the man and the woman, not from feelings of need or a lack of responsibility. Just as silence is not always commendable and sometimes it is a duty to command what is right and forbid what is wrong, this does not pertain to silencing women or their singing. Further explanation on this matter will follow.

The confinement of women, apart from domestic abuse, has no other meaning. The narration is far from the narrow interpretations some have put forward in its exegesis. Confining women by keeping them away from entertainment, healthy gatherings, and other forms of social interaction—especially in modern apartment buildings, which resemble cages, aging the young and exhausting the elderly—is contrary to reason, which is the principle of Shiism.

The subject of such narrations should not be considered applicable to noble, chaste, and virtuous Shiite women. Rather, these narrations pertain to the unruly and idle women, especially the slaves who were under the control of the opponents of the Imamate and known for their promiscuity. The Arabs also imposed their pre-Islamic traditions—particularly their views on women—on their wives. In those times, women had no right to life, and they were buried alive. This practice arose due to a lack of security for women and the dominance of base, animalistic, and sexual instincts over men. No tribe would show mercy towards the women of another, adhering to tribal loyalty. Furthermore, the simple life of the Arabs, coupled with a shortage of jobs, made it difficult for women to integrate into a primitive society that was slowly becoming urbanized. Under these conditions, it could be said that women were “weak” and “ill,” and their infirmity was healed by silence. However, if public welfare improves and women benefit from higher education and social professions suited to their abilities, with opportunities for their growth, talent development, and personal and social security, they should no longer be considered weak. Of course, if a person speaks poorly and is ill, it is necessary to advise them not to speak in order to protect their dignity. Just as if a scholar is invited to preach in a city and his wife is not very knowledgeable, he may advise her to speak less, and if she is invited to speak, he might decline the offer. But if his wife is knowledgeable and able to manage gatherings and events, not only will she not hesitate to accept the invitation, but he will also encourage her to do so. Social involvement of a wife requires this.

The Housebound Woman’s Weakness

1. “Imam Ali (A.S.) said: We were with the Messenger of God (PBUH), and he asked us: ‘Tell me, what is best for women?’ We were unable to answer, until all of the companions dispersed, and I went to Lady Fatima (A.S.) and informed her about the question posed by the Prophet. I said that none of us knew the answer. Lady Fatima replied: ‘But I know it well. The best thing for women is that they do not see men, and men do not see them.'”

I then returned to the Prophet (PBUH) and said: “O Messenger of God, you asked what is best for women, and the best thing for them is that they do not see men, and men do not see them.” The Prophet (PBUH) said: “Who told you this? You were with me and did not know this!” I replied: “Lady Fatima (A.S.) told me.” The Prophet was pleased and said: “Fatima is part of me.” (1)

This narration reveals one of the essential aspects of Imamate, one of its most important facets, and highlights the position of Lady Fatima (A.S.) in the cosmic hierarchy. Every good and perfection in the celestial realm flows through her blessed hands and reaches all other levels of existence. This is not inconsistent with the narrations where Imam Ali (A.S.) says, “I know the paths of the heavens better than those of the earth,” or when it is said that he recited the Quran before its revelation. This subject should be explored further when discussing the topic of Imamate. Here, we must briefly state that Imam Ali (A.S.) may have wanted to show the companions the spiritual rank of Lady Fatima (A.S.), and thus, he conveyed her words to the mosque and to the people. The point here is that Lady Fatima (A.S.) says: “The best thing for women is that they do not see men, and men do not see them,” which, in line with previous narrations, advises women to avoid unnecessary presence in society, excessive visits, and aimless wandering in the streets and marketplaces. This does not contradict the necessary and appropriate presence of women in society. The need for such an explanation arises, similar to the explanation needed for the phrase “فَعَیِّنا بِذَلِکَ کُلَّنا حَتَّی تَفَرَّقْنَا,” both of which, in an ordinary sense, are not easily understood.

Considering the previous narrations, which refer to women as “weak” and “exposed,” or suggest that men should provide them with a veil, it can be concluded that the subject of these narrations is those women who are housebound and unable to participate in a male-dominated society, one that often lacks security. In such a society, markets for women workers were not established. The market in Medina or Mecca was small, with a few date plantations and trading caravans. If women ventured out, it was mainly for essential tasks and shopping, which could be done on specific days and at set intervals, thus avoiding wasting time. Sharia does not approve of women wandering aimlessly in markets, and this applies not only to women but to men as well. The Quran explicitly states: “Eat and drink, and enjoy what you have earned through your work” (1), thus guiding people to avoid wasting their time in pointless activities. Work should not be reduced to wandering in streets and markets.

These narrations are not meant solely for past generations. Even today, if a woman or a man is unemployed and leaves the house without reason, the subject of these narrations applies. With this clarification, we can conclude that such narrations do not apply to women who work outside the home and contribute to the family’s income—especially in times of economic instability and the spread of knowledge and education.

Women’s Housebound Weakness

In Islamic jurisprudence, the wisdom of keeping women at home does not mean their confinement. Rather, it refers to protecting them from aimless social interaction, especially with people of the opposite gender. Islam does not encourage suffocating women with restrictions. Instead, it wants women to pursue knowledge, contribute to society while maintaining their dignity, and ultimately embrace their role as the core of the family.

Prohibition of Certain Occupations for Women and Men’s Involvement in Them

It is forbidden for women to engage in jobs specifically designated for men. Women should be able to manage their own affairs in this regard and provide the necessary attire for the women’s community themselves. On the other hand, it is also forbidden for women to take on tasks that are meant exclusively for men.

Boutiques and Corruption Hangouts

In today’s society, there are numerous corrupt men who, driven by their lust, work in boutiques, turning their shops into places for indulging in debauchery with young women. These boutiques are no more than a front for corruption and vice, disguised as legitimate businesses. Often, crimes take place in these boutiques. As such, none of these professions are lawful, and the government should not grant permission for such establishments to operate under male management. Women should manage and oversee these establishments.

There is no difference between men and women in terms of having social occupations, and the narrations that mention men in relation to professions refer to a society where there was no opportunity for women to enter the workforce or take on professional roles. The following narration is another example of this:

Narration 8:
“Muḥammad ibn Ya’qūb, from Muḥammad ibn Yahya… from Abī al-Ḥasan (A.S.) said: ‘Whatever a man starts with in his livelihood is trade.'”

In this narration, the word “man” is used because it only refers to that time period. It would be incorrect to now prohibit women from engaging in business simply because they have found their rightful place in society and business is no longer exclusive to men. Prohibiting business for women or deeming it dishonorable is unjust.

The Danger of Male-Managed Women’s Businesses

If women do not take charge of their own affairs, a few identity-less young men may end up selling women’s lingerie in boutiques, which would be a disgrace for a religious society and an embarrassment for Muslims. The Islamic Parliament must pass a law that defines jobs specifically for men and those exclusively for women, determining the gender of the seller based on the type of goods being sold.

The Prohibition of Women’s Professions for Men

Our ruling regarding occupations that are exclusive to women is as follows: It is forbidden for men to engage in occupations that are meant specifically for women. With the opportunity available for women to enter these roles, men should not choose such work for themselves. Executive bodies, as well as Muslims, must deal with individuals who engage in such professions, in order to reduce the corruption caused by such practices and to ensure the religious integrity of society, as well as prevent the erosion of values. When jobs are properly defined, any man or woman who goes against this rule by working in professions designated for the opposite sex is corrupt.

Rather than belittling women and forcing them into servitude and cleaning tasks, society should assign them jobs that are specifically theirs, such as goldsmithing or selling women’s clothing. Women should seek to claim their rightful place in this regard. After more than two decades since the revolution, unfortunately, little has been done in this area. If a survey were conducted today, it would reveal that a significant amount of corruption stems from boutiques, some of which are linked to foreign elements. These are often involved in corrupt activities, including sexual exploitation and the promotion of cultural decay. Some of them even distribute illicit drugs. If women manage such places, female customers can easily find the clothing they need without the hassle of trying on multiple outfits for size.

A Society Without Religious Guidance

When a society is not governed by religious principles, it leads to many social dysfunctions. To remedy this, society must be guided by religion, implementing practical methods based on divine law, leading the society toward a pure and righteous state. Women must not see themselves as inferior; rather, they must build self-confidence, overcome their weaknesses, and gain the trust of society. This will allow women to seek help from other women with confidence and demonstrate the necessary expertise in their fields. As a result, women will not fear working in roles such as drivers or doctors. However, the key is maintaining public chastity and the dignity of both men and women. Since public modesty in society is not yet at an ideal standard, women cannot participate in societal roles without the company of their male guardians, as their safety and dignity must be ensured. Without this level of security, women’s presence in society would be analogous to a hazardous electrical situation, which can stagnate society and harm women’s position within it.

Planning for Women’s Empowerment

Future societal planning should aim for women to become self-reliant in their professions, just as men should be. Religious scholars must provide guidance on these matters and prevent situations where others in society begin issuing opinions or rulings. This requires deep scholarly insight and sociology.

Female Actors in a Healthy Society

In a healthy society where modesty is a guiding principle, women can become actors, appearing on cinema and television screens and playing family roles. In such a society, where modesty is maintained, even if actors use romantic language in their roles, it would be acceptable, as their intention is not to create real emotional connections. However, if male and female actors, in their roles, perform these lines as if they are expressing their true feelings, it becomes forbidden.

An actor should behave like a butcher or a tailor; that is, when a butcher finishes his work, he washes his hands and leaves the shop, and a tailor does the same after finishing his sewing. Similarly, when an actor finishes a scene, they should cleanse their thoughts and leave, without carrying the emotional or personal implications of their role with them. If they fail to do so, they become mentally unwell, and the presence of this illness within them renders their profession forbidden.

Today, it is often seen in films that young men and women speak to each other in an exaggerated and provocative manner, uttering exciting, stimulating, and degrading words. They are made up so heavily that such a scene could not even be found in a cabaret or the worst of parties. These films, often set in luxurious homes, only promote a consumer culture and have a detrimental effect not only on women but also on men. This has the potential to cause instability in even semi-warm family environments. This issue is not related to sound or voice but is instead influenced by the prevailing culture in society.

Conclusion

Based on the analysis of the narrations mentioned, it can be concluded that these hadiths do not confine women to the house nor prohibit them from appropriate societal participation. Women are free to engage in any reasonable social activity, provided it is devoid of lewdness, sensual gratification, moral corruption, or psychological disorders. Based on the evidence we will present in the next section, women can use their voices for non-professional singing or music, provided that the public morality and chastity of society are upheld.