An Introduction to the Science of Principles, Rijal, and Narration

An Introduction to the Science of Principles, Rijal, and Narration

The present work, in its first section, presents the views, perspectives, and jurisprudential system of prominent usul scholars from the beginning until the era of Akhund Khorasani. It briefly introduces those figures who have had an impact on the evolution, growth, and development of the science of usul.

Bibliographic Information:

• Author: Mohammadreza Nikounam (b. 1327)
• Title: An Introduction to the Science of Principles, Rijal, and Narration / Nikounam
• Publication Information: Islamshahr: Sobhe Farda Publications, 1393 (2014).
• Physical Description: 72 pages
• ISBN: 978-600-7347-74-4
• Publication Status: Second edition
• Previous Edition: Zohoor Shafaq, 1386 (2007).
• Subject: Shiite Usulists
• Subject: Hadith — Science of Rijal
• Dewey Classification: 297.392
• National Bibliography Number: 3672791

Preface:

Every science, in its early stages, requires careful attention and scrutiny to enable its growth and development. The science of usul and jurisprudential discussions are no exception to this rule, and in its early stages, it did not possess the breadth and depth it has today. It has been developed through the efforts of great scholars, with their innovations being crucial to this development. Without a doubt, the contributions of jurists in this field are immense and invaluable. Were they not to have systematised the common elements of inference and prepared the resources and methods of ijtihad, we would not be able to respond to the contemporary issues and phenomena of modern life, as correct ijtihad is based on this foundation.

The present work in the first section presents the views, perspectives, and jurisprudential system of prominent usul scholars from the beginning until the era of Akhund Khorasani. It briefly introduces those figures who have contributed to the development, growth, and refinement of the science of usul.

Introduction to the Science of Rijal:

The necessity and importance of the science of Rijal and the terminology of the science of Hadith are explored in this section.

It is noteworthy that these writings were composed in the early 1960s, during the author’s youth.

Chapter One: History of the Science of Usul

The Development of the Science of Usul

In the development of ijtihadi discussions and usul principles, scholars of the Sunni tradition preceded their Shia counterparts. This was due to their belief that with the passing of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), the era of authoritative texts and traditions had ended. Since they could not benefit from the traditions and texts that came from the Imams (AS), they were compelled to turn to probabilistic sources, leading them to systematically organise and compile such works. On the other hand, the Shia school believed that the era of authoritative texts did not end with the passing of the Prophet, as the Imams (AS) were the continuation of the Prophet’s presence. Therefore, their sayings, actions, and approvals were considered to hold the same authoritative status as those of the Prophet. This belief led to a delay in the organisation and compilation of ijtihadi discussions and usul principles within the Shia tradition.

Scholars of the Sunni tradition wrote various works on the principles of usul and common ijtihadi elements. According to some Sunni scholars, such as Ibn Khaldun, the first person to scientifically and technically compile the principles of fiqh among the Sunnis was Imam Muhammad ibn Idris al-Shafi‘i (d. 204 AH), whose work al-Risala became well-known. Following him, the Hanafis also contributed to the development of this field.

As previously mentioned, after the death of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), the Shia did not feel the need to compile discussions of jurisprudence and usul principles, as they believed the sayings, actions, and approvals of the Imams (AS) were directly comparable to the Prophet’s. Thus, there was no urgent need to systematise the field. Consequently, the Shia began to focus on usul discussions only after the commencement of the Major Occultation of Imam al-Mahdi (AS), around 329 AH. This period marked the beginning of serious scholarly efforts to address the increasing difficulties in ijtihad, as the Shia were faced with new problems arising from the lack of direct access to the Imams and their representatives.

As time passed and new issues emerged, the need for systematic ijtihad became more pressing. This need led to the compilation of works that presented usul and ijtihadi principles in a structured, scientific manner. The great jurist Ibn Abi Aqil al-Omari was the pioneer in this field.

The Usulists of the Imamiyah School

Some of the most renowned usul scholars include the following:

1. Ibn Abi Aqil al-Omari
   Abu Muhammad; Husayn ibn Ali al-Omari, known as Ibn Abi Aqil, was born in 329 AH. He authored a book on usul titled al-Mustamsik bihabl al-‘Al al-Rasul. According to Allama Bahr al-‘Ulum, “The scholars paid special attention to his sayings, especially the later scholars.” He was the first to systematically organise fiqh and separate usul discussions from fiqh, contributing significantly to the evolution of Shia jurisprudence. Before his work, the Shia fiqh was limited to understanding the meaning of texts and did not have a structured method for deriving new legal rulings.

Notable Opinions of Ibn Abi Aqil
Some of Ibn Abi Aqil’s unique and rare fatwas include:

1. The purity of the People of the Book by nature.
2. The permissibility of cleaning something impure with impure water in cases of necessity.
3. The non-recommendation of gargling and sniffing water during wudu (ablution).
4. The permissibility of performing wudu with impure water.
5. The permissibility of praying in any direction when the qibla is unclear due to darkness, clouds, or wind.
6. The obligation of reciting qunut in prayer, and its invalidity if deliberately omitted.
7. Ibn Junayd
   Abu Ali; Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Skafi, known as Ibn Junayd, was born in 381 AH. He was a prominent Shia jurist and the teacher of Sheikh Mufid. He was a pioneering scholar who continued the work of Ibn Abi Aqil, aiming to scientifically and systematically develop the field of usul. He authored several works, including Tahdhīb al-Shī‘a li-Ahkām al-Sharī‘a.

Ibn Hamza, the author of Al-Wasila, and Abi al-Salah al-Halabi, the author of Al-Kafaya, also held the same view. Other Shiite scholars, such as Mirza Abdullah Afandi, the author of Riyadh al-‘Ulama, and Allama Mahfouzi Bahrani, the author of Al-Isharat, also adhered to this theory. However, the type of ijtihad they considered obligatory in an absolute sense differs from the ijtihad that Shiite scholars, as well as the Hanafis, Malikis, Hanbalis, Awsis, Tabariyyans, Thawriyyans, Latiyyans, Kalbiyyans, Basriyyans, and others believe to be of a communal obligation. What Ibn Zahra and his followers meant by the absolute obligation of ijtihad is that every individual who is accountable must acquire knowledge of the rulings to the extent necessary for themselves through hadiths or the guidance of a scholar.

1. Prohibition of acting upon a khabar wahid (single report).
2. Prohibition of eating fish caught by a non-Muslim.
3. Prohibition of performing tawaf while riding unless in a situation of necessity.

Introduction to the Science of Usul, Rijal, and Dirayah, p. 28

7. Sheikh Tusi

Sheikh Tusi (d. 598 AH) applied ijtihad practically in the principles of rulings and general laws, returning new branches to the foundational principles and aligning general laws with external cases. As a result, Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) expanded in terms of branches and specific cases.

Perhaps one of the best historical records that illustrates the development of ijtihad and reasoning before Sheikh Tusi is found in the introduction of his invaluable and renowned book, Al-Mabsut. In this introduction, Sheikh Tusi states:

“I often hear from a group of opponents—whether they be scholars or pretenders—that the jurisprudence of the Shi‘a is considered light and insignificant due to its limited discussion of branches and issues, and they claim that those who do not accept analogy (qiyas) and ijtihad based on opinion have no way of increasing issues and branching out from principles. However, this statement stems from ignorance and a lack of understanding of the principles and from not reflecting on them. If they had examined the hadiths and fiqh in our books, they would have discovered that most of the issues they raise are already present in our hadiths…”

He continues: “I have long wished to write a book that would include the issues and branches of fiqh that interest me; however, certain obstacles prevented me from doing so, including daily responsibilities and the disinterest of the group in this approach. They merely narrated the hadiths and reports as they were quoted, such that if the meanings of these reports were transmitted using different words and expressions, they would be shocked and unable to understand them.”

Sheikh Tusi then explains: “Previously, I compiled Al-Nihaya in the manner that the scholars had mentioned in their books, including all the hadiths of the Shi‘a scholars, which were scattered in their works. I presented fiqh in an organized and structured manner, gathering similar issues in one place. This effort was not due to the complexity or disorganization of the chapters, but rather to clarify how the issues relate to one another, their similarities and differences, and to convey them clearly. For this reason, I have kept the original wording of most of the hadiths so that readers do not find them unfamiliar or difficult. At the end of the book, I included a brief collection of the references concerning acts of worship and used brevity in this regard.”

In the end, Sheikh Tusi highlights the need to write a comprehensive and complete book that would encompass all the fiqh books of scholars, which he did by summarizing the content of nearly thirty books, focusing only on the purely fiqh matters and leaving aside prayers and etiquette.

From Sheikh Tusi’s statement, it is clear that before the writing of Al-Mabsut, practical ijtihad that leads to branching out and application was not yet established. Up until then, fiqh was mainly confined to textual transmission and understanding the direct meaning of hadiths.

Results of Sheikh Tusi’s Contribution:

1. Expansion of the Scope of Legislation in terms of external cases and newly emerging issues. As mentioned in his works, jurisprudence had not yet moved beyond the textual transmission of rulings and had not developed into the practical application of general laws to contemporary events and issues. Sheikh Tusi’s significant contribution allowed for practical application and extension of jurisprudence into these new areas.
2. Condemnation of Literalism and Rigidity that had dominated the approach of some scholars before Sheikh Tusi, who relied excessively on the literal wording of texts and feared deviating from the exact expressions of hadiths.
3. The Emergence of Consensus (Ijma) as a Valid Source of Proof: The expansion and development of fiqh topics led scholars to seek new sources of evidence, such as consensus, for cases where there was no specific hadith or text available. Sheikh Tusi played a major role in the widespread recognition of consensus as a valid and reliable source of legal authority.
4. Eliminating the Need for Speculative and Unreliable Sources like analogy (qiyas) or personal judgment (istihsan) in the fiqh of Shi‘a, as his approach of applying ijtihad to fundamental principles allowed fiqh to remain relevant to new developments without resorting to such speculative methods.

Sheikh Tusi’s Writings:

Sheikh Tusi wrote numerous books, including:

• Al-Mabsut
• Al-Khilaf
• Al-Nihaya (in fiqh)
• Al-Tahdhib and Al-Istibsar (in hadith)
• Al-Rijal and Al-Fahrist (on biographical literature)
• Al-Mufassir (on theology)
• Al-Tibyan (on tafsir)

Additionally, in the field of usul, he authored ‘Iddat al-Usul, a significant work in which he addresses the principles of jurisprudence separately from fiqh, treating it as an independent discipline.

The Stagnation of Ijtihad after Sheikh Tusi:

Following the death of Sheikh Tusi, for nearly a century, scholars refrained from following his practical ijtihad approach. During this period, scholars abandoned branching out and applying ijtihad practically, instead contenting themselves with his rulings without offering any new opinions or contradicting his views. This period of stagnation in ijtihad was primarily due to the reverence scholars held for Sheikh Tusi’s towering intellectual stature, leading them to blindly follow his rulings, often referred to as the “mukallidun” (those who follow).

Consequences of this Stagnation:

1. Stagnation in the Development of Jurisprudence: Fiqh failed to adapt to new issues and events, and it became detached from contemporary concerns.
2. The Emergence of Fiqh as a Static Tradition: Jurisprudence became lifeless, rigid, and disconnected from evolving contexts.
3. Lack of New Interpretations: No fresh interpretations were developed for evolving issues or changing contexts influenced by time, place, and societal conditions.

However, this period of stagnation ended with the bold interventions of Muhammad bin Ahmad bin Idris, the grandson of Sheikh Tusi, who reinvigorated ijtihad and critiqued the old methodologies.

8. Ibn Idris

Nearly a century after Sheikh Tusi’s death, scholars blindly followed his views and did not offer any dissenting opinions until Ibn Idris al-Hilli opened the door for scholarly criticism. In his book Al-Sara’ir, Ibn Idris critically assessed Sheikh Tusi’s legal opinions, closing the door to blind imitation and reigniting the spirit of independent ijtihad. He explains in the introduction of his book:

“Upon observing that scholars of my time were neglecting the teachings of the Shari‘ah and were content with what they did not understand, I decided to take it upon myself to correct this state of affairs.”

Ibn Idris’s Approach to Jurisprudence:

Ibn Idris emphasized a fresh, critical approach to ijtihad, rejecting weak and unauthenticated reports while relying on strong, trustworthy narrations, even if they were from khabar wahid (individual reports). His work marked a significant turn towards rational analysis in the process of ijtihad.

Key Ideas and Opinions of Ibn Idris:

1. Rejection of Khabar Wahid as a reliable source without corroborating evidence.
2. Acknowledgement of the Purity of Non-Shi‘a.
3. Validity of Wudu despite wiping the wet area on the skin.

Contributions and Benefits of Ibn Idris’s Ijtihad:

1. Expansion of reasoning in ijtihad discussions.
2. Rejection of blind imitation and renewal of ijtihad.
3. Reevaluation of Sheikh Tusi’s viewpoints.

Works of Ibn Idris:

• Al-Sara’ir al-Hawi Li-Tahrir al-Fatawi
• Al-Tanqih fi Sharh al-Tebyan
• Masail Ibn Idris

9. Wahid Behbahani

The era of Wahid Behbahani is known as the period of the development of ijtihad. During this period, Islamic seminaries witnessed a movement and evolution in ijtihadi discussions. Since the scholars and mujtahids of this era had conducted comprehensive research, ijtihadi jurisprudence reached its peak. Wahid Behbahani, the eminent teacher of this period, was the pioneer of this age. Through his immense efforts and the presentation of dynamic and innovative ijtihadi theories, he played a significant role in transforming, growing, and evolving ijtihadi issues.

Key Achievements of This Era

Among the most important consequences of Wahid Behbahani’s ijtihadi movement are the following:

1. Thorough Examination of Narrators: He conducted a thorough investigation of the narrators of hadiths, which led to the correction of many hadiths that were foundational in various issues of ijtihadi jurisprudence. This brought about a clear transformation in the process of legal inference (istimbat).
2. Rejection of the Dominance of Hadith Literalism: In this period, many scholars focused on the literal interpretation of hadiths, without considering the evolving context of time and subjects. Wahid Behbahani condemned this literalist approach to inference, which had dominated many seminaries for years, and displaced its supporters, opening the field for the mujtahids.
3. Advancement of Ijtihadi Jurisprudence: As a result of presenting a more comprehensive ijtihadi methodology, ijtihadi jurisprudence entered a new phase of development through the efforts of Wahid Behbahani.

Works of Wahid Behbahani

Some of the notable works of this prominent scholar include:

1. Hashiyat al-Ma’ālim (Margin notes on Ma’ālim).
2. Al-Ijtihad wal-akhbar.
3. Al-Taliqāt al-Rijāliyya (Commentaries on the science of rijāl).
4. Sharh Mafātīh al-Fayḍ (Commentary on Mafātīh al-Fayḍ).
5. Al-Fawā’id al-Ḥā’iriyya.

10. Shaykh Ja’far al-Kāshif al-Ghattā

Al-Kāshif al-Ghattā is highly regarded in the field of principles of jurisprudence, such that Shaykh Ansari stated: “If an individual masters the principles and rules that Shaykh Ja’far laid out in the beginning of Kashf al-Ghattā, I believe they are a mujtahid.” The significance that Shaykh Ansari attributed to al-Kāshif al-Ghattā’s foundational ijtihadi ideas in Makasib is something he did not even attribute to his own teachers, such as Ṣāḥib al-Jawāhir. Therefore, in Makasib, he refers to him as one of the “luminaries” and to Ṣāḥib al-Jawāhir as one of his “contemporaries.”

Shaykh Ja’far al-Kāshif al-Ghattā contributed greatly to the development and expansion of ijtihadi discussions and principles of jurisprudence, for his works and ideas were more authoritative than those of previous scholars in this field. He also introduced principles in his book that had not been seen before him.

11. Sayyid Jawad Amili

Sayyid Jawad Amili, a student of Wahid Behbahani, Bahr al-‘Ulūm, al-Kāshif al-Ghattā, and Shaykh Hussain Najaf, is the author of the important jurisprudential book Miftāḥ al-Karāma.

12. Sayyid Ali Tabataba’i

Sayyid Ali Tabataba’i, the author of Riyāḍ al-Masā’il, was highly recommended by Shaykh Ansari for study, as it significantly aids students in attaining ijtihād.

13. Mirza Qummi

Ayatollah Mīrzā Abū al-Qāsim Gīlānī Rāshtī, known as Mirzā Qummi (d. 1231 AH), is the author of the famous book Qawānīn al-Usūl.

Mirzā’s Qawānīn contributed immensely to the development of the principles of jurisprudence, providing stability and organization in the field. Many scholars have written commentaries on it and it has been extensively studied.

14. Ṣāḥib al-Jawāhir al-Kalām

Ayatollah Haj Shaykh Muhammad Hassan Najafi (d. 1266 AH), a student of prominent scholars like Shaykh Ja’far al-Kāshif al-Ghattā, Shaykh Musa al-Kāshif al-Ghattā, and Sayyid Jawad Amili, is the author of numerous scholarly works. His most famous work is Jawāhir al-Kalām fi Sharḥ Sharā’i‘ al-Islām, a detailed commentary on Sharā’i‘ al-Islām by al-Ḥāllī.

The most important features of Jawāhir are:

1. Covering all aspects of jurisprudence.
2. Presenting all scholarly opinions with their proofs and critiques.
3. Offering a uniform method of discussing issues throughout the book.
4. Being a self-contained work for ijtihad, eliminating the need for other jurisprudential texts.
5. Including rare jurisprudential issues not found in other works.

15. Shaykh Murtadha Ansari

Shaykh Murtadha Ansari, a pioneer of precision and innovation in ijtihadi matters, revitalised the field with his new methodology and careful reasoning. His Fara’id al-Usūl, also known as Risā’il, and his other works such as Matarah al-Anzār, showcase his profound, intricate, and refined scholarship.

His method involved presenting different scholarly opinions with their proofs, critically analysing all angles of an issue, and then presenting his own independent stance. This approach ensured that no aspect of the issue was overlooked.

Innovations by Shaykh Ansari

Shaykh Ansari introduced new terminologies and concepts in the realm of ijtihad, including the terms wūrūd (admissibility) and ḥukm (governance) in the conflict of evidences. He was the first to use these terms in this context, offering solutions to many problems in inference that were previously unresolved.

16. Akhund Khurasani

Ayatollah Akhund Khurasani (d. 1329 AH) was a leading scholar who made significant contributions to the study of principles, utilising concise and profound expressions. His book Kifāyat al-Usūl is a testament to his novel approach to the study of jurisprudence, offering deep analysis and summarised content.

The period of Akhund Khurasani and other prominent figures like Agha Zia al-Din Irāqi, Ayatollah Nayini, and late Shaykh Kampani constitutes the third phase in the history of the science of principles. These scholars, alongside Shaykh Ansari, enriched the field through their intellectual rigour and diligence.

Chapter 2: Introduction to the Science of Rijāl and Dirāya

Definition of the Science of Rijāl

The science of rijāl is the study of the conditions and status of narrators in hadith transmission. It primarily concerns the qualifications of narrators in terms of trustworthiness and credibility.

The Need for the Science of Rijāl

Various scholars have emphasised the necessity of studying rijāl for jurisprudential inference. Some of the reasons for this include:

1. Establishing Trustworthiness: To determine the trustworthiness of a narrator, knowledge of rijāl is essential.
2. Resolving Contradictions: In cases where two hadiths conflict, it is necessary to refer to the attributes of the narrators, such as their justice or knowledge, which requires expertise in rijāl.
3. Identifying Fabrications: Knowledge of rijāl helps scholars identify false or fabricated narrations, as one must be aware of the narrators’ backgrounds to evaluate the authenticity of their reports.

Some argue against the need for rijāl, citing the certainty of narrations in the four major hadith collections or the reliability of the majority’s practice. However, those in favour of studying rijāl argue that this knowledge is crucial for a deeper understanding and verification of hadith.

Early Works on Rijāl

The first significant work on rijāl was by Ubayd Allah ibn Abi Rāfi’, titled Al-Sunan wa al-Aḥkām wa al-Qadhā’, though no copies of it remain today.

Important Works in the Science of Rijāl

The major works in the Shi’a tradition on rijāl include:

1. Rijāl al-Kāshī by Muhammad ibn Umar al-Kāshī.
2. Rijāl al-Najāshī by Ahmad ibn Ali al-Najāshī.
3. Rijāl al-Shaykh by Shaykh al-Tūsī.
4. Fahrist al-Shaykh by Shaykh al-Tūsī.
5. Rijāl al-Barqī (d. 280 AH).
6. Resāla al-Ābi Ghālib Zarārī (d. 368 AH).
7. Rijāl Ibn Dawood (d. 647 AH).

Al-Ghaddā’irī

One of the ancient works in the field of Rijāl (biographical evaluation of narrators) that some scholars consider among the primary books in the field is Rijāl al-Ghaddā’irī or Rijāl ibn al-Ghaddā’irī. Al-‘Allāmah (Allameh) refers to this book in al-Khulasah, and similarly, al-Qahbā’ī mentions it in Majma‘. The title of this Rijāl work is al-Du‘afā’ (The Weak Narrators).

There are, of course, various theories among scholars regarding this book, with significant differences of opinion.

Some attribute this book to opponents of Shiism, while others assert that it is definitively from al-Ghaddā’irī. There are also other intermediate theories. These disagreements arise due to the criticism and disparagement of certain narrators deemed trustworthy and reliable within this book.

The Three Muhammads of the Early Period in Hadith

The three early Muhammads in the field of Hadith are:

1. Muhammad ibn Ya‘qūb al-Kulaynī
2. Muhammad ibn al-Ḥasan al-Ṭūsī
3. Muhammad ibn ‘Alī ibn al-Ḥusayn ibn Bābūyah (al-Sadūq)

The Three Muhammads of the Later Period in Hadith

The three later Muhammads in the field of Hadith are:

1. Mullā Muhammad Bāqir Majlisī (author of Bihār al-Anwār)
2. Mullā Muhammad Muḥsin Fayḍ Kāsānī (author of Tafsīr al-Wāfī)
3. Muhammad ibn Ḥasan Ḥurr ‘Āmilī

Major Later Hadith Compilations

The most important later comprehensive works in the field of Rijāl are:

1. Majma‘ al-Rijāl by Zaki al-Dīn ‘Ināyat-Allāh al-Qahbā’ī (d. 993 AH)
2. Manhaj al-Maqāl by Sayyid Mīrzā Muhammad ibn ‘Alī ibn Ibrāhīm al-Istirābādī (d. 1028 AH)
3. Jāmi‘ al-Dawāt by Muhammad ibn ‘Alī al-Ardabīlī
4. Naqd al-Rijāl by Sayyid Muḥsin al-Ṭaqrīshī (written in 1015 AH)
5. Muntahā al-Maqāl fī Aḥwāl al-Rijāl by Shaykh Abī ‘Alī Muhammad ibn Ismā‘īl al-Ḥā’irī (d. 1215 AH)
6. Bahjat al-‘Āmāl fī Sharḥ Zubdat al-Maqāl fī ‘Ilm al-Rijāl by Shaykh ‘Alī ibn ‘Abdullāh Muhammad ibn Muḥib-Allāh al-‘Aliārī Tabrīzī (d. 1327 AH)
7. Tanqīḥ al-Maqāl fī Ma‘rifat ‘Ilm al-Rijāl by Shaykh ‘Abd-Allāh Māmaqānī (d. 1351 AH)
8. Qāmūs al-Rijāl by Shaykh Muḥammad Taqī al-Tustarī
9. Jāmi‘ al-Ruwāt by Muḥaqqiq al-Ardabīlī
10. Ṭawā’if al-Maqāl by Shaykh Muḥammad Shīfā‘ī Mūsawī Tafrashī
11. Murattab al-Asānīd by Ayatullāh Burūjirdī
12. Mu‘jam Rijāl al-Ḥadīth by Ayatullāh Khū’ī

Ways to Prove the Trustworthiness of a Narrator

The trustworthiness of a narrator is known through two main categories:

1. Specific Confirmations of Trustworthiness (Tawthīqāt Khāṣah):
   • A narration from one of the infallibles (Ahl al-Bayt)
   • A narration from an early authority, such as al-Barrī and al-Kashī
   • A narration from a later authority, such as al-Muhaqqiq al-Bahbānī
   • A claim of consensus (Ijma‘) from early scholars on the trustworthiness of a narrator, such as the consensus about the trustworthiness of Ibrāhīm ibn Hāshim, father of ‘Alī ibn Ibrāhīm al-Qummī, as claimed by Ibn Ṭāwūs
   • Praise from those who can discern the outward integrity of the narrators: many praises found in the works of Rijāl scholars indicate the apparent uprightness and moral quality of the narrators.
   • Efforts by the interpreter to gather circumstantial evidence.
2. General Confirmations of Trustworthiness (Tawthīqāt ‘Āmah):
   • Consensus of companions
   • Trustworthy scholars: Some well-known figures like Muḥammad ibn Abī ‘Umayr, Ṣafwān ibn Yaḥyā, and Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad ibn Abī Naṣīr Bīzanṭī narrate only from trustworthy individuals, and anyone they narrate from is considered trustworthy.
   • Famous companions known to narrate only from trustworthy individuals, such as Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad ibn ‘Īsā, Banu Faḍāl, Ja‘far ibn Bashīr al-Jabalī, Aḥmad ibn ‘Alī al-Najāshī, Muḥammad ibn Ismā‘īl ibn Maymūn al-Za‘farānī, and ‘Alī ibn al-Ḥasan al-Ṭāṭarī.
   • The narrators of Nawādir al-Ḥikmah transmitted by Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Yaḥyā without intermediary are trustworthy.
   • The narrators of Kāmil al-Zīyārah by Shaykh Abū al-Qāsim Ja‘far ibn Muḥammad ibn Qūlūyah.
   • The narrators in Tafsīr al-Qummī.
   • All those listed by Shaykh al-Ṭūsī as companions of Imam Ṣādiq (a.s.).
   • Those granted permission to narrate by their teachers.

Some Terms in Hadith Science

• Asl (Origin): A collection of narrations directly recorded by the narrator from the Imam, without intermediaries. If the compilation is gathered from another book (from the Imam), it is referred to as a far‘ (branch).
• Kitāb and Taṣnīf: These two terms, besides quoting the words of the Infallibles, also contain the author’s own words.
• Tawātur (Mass Transmission): A report transmitted by a group whose consensus on its falsehood is impossible, resulting in knowledge of the truth of the report.
• Aḥād (Singular Transmission): A report narrated by only one or a few people, where the truth of the report is not self-evident without further scrutiny.

Other terms include classifications like ṣaḥīḥ (authentic), ḥasan (good), muwaththaq (trustworthy), ḍa‘īf (weak), gharīb (rare), mustanad (supported), ma‘nā’ (motive-based), and mu‘addal (additional), each describing different qualities or issues regarding the chain of narrators or the text of the report.

Introduction to the Science of Usul, Rijal, and Diraya

One of the old books of Rijal, which some scholars regard as one of the fundamental works in the field, is Rijal al-Ghadhā’iri or Rijal Ibn Ghadhā’iri, which was referenced by Allama in his al-Khalāṣa and also by Qahbā’ī in his Majmaʿ. The name of this Rijal book is al-Ḍuʿafā’.

Of course, various opinions exist about this book among scholars, with significant differences in views. Some attribute this book to the enemies of the Shi’ah, while others assert with certainty that it belongs to Ghadhā’iri. In between, other theories also exist. These disagreements stem from the criticism and denigration within the book regarding trustworthy and reliable narrators.

The Three Muhammads of Early Hadith Science

The three foremost Muhammads in Hadith science are:

1. Muhammad ibn Ya’qub al-Kulayni
2. Muhammad ibn al-Hasan al-Tusi
3. Muhammad ibn Ali ibn al-Husayn ibn Babawayh (al-Saduq)

The Three Muhammads of Later Hadith Science

The three later Muhammads in Hadith science are:

1. Mulla Muhammad Baqir Majlisi (author of Bihar al-Anwar)
2. Mulla Muhammad Mahsin Fayd Kashani (author of Tafseer al-Wafi)
3. Muhammad ibn Hasan al-Hurr al-‘Amili

Major Later Rijal Compendiums

The most important later Rijal compendiums include the following:

• Majma’ al-Rijal: Authored by Zaki al-Din Inayat Allah Qahbā’ī (d. 993 AH)
• Manhaj al-Maqāl: Authored by Sayyid Mirza Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Ibrahim Isfahani (d. 1028 AH)
• Jāmiʿ al-Dawāt: Authored by Muhammad ibn Ali al-Ardabili
• Naqd al-Rijal: Authored by Sayyid Muhsin al-Taqrishi in 1015 AH
• Muntahā al-Maqāl fi Ahwāl al-Rijal: Authored by Shaykh Abi Ali Muhammad ibn Ismail Ha’iri (d. 1215 AH)
• Bahjat al-Amāl fi Sharḥ Zubdat al-Maqāl fi Ilm al-Rijal: Authored by Shaykh Ali ibn Abdullah Muhammad ibn Mahbub Allah Aliyari Tabrizi (d. 1327 AH)
• Tanqih al-Maqāl fi Mawafaqat Ilm al-Rijal: Authored by Shaykh Abdullah Mamqani (d. 1351 AH)
• Qāmūs al-Rijāl: Authored by Shaykh Muhammad Taqi al-Tustari
• Jāmiʿ al-Ruwāt: Authored by Muhaddith Ardabili
• Tawā’if al-Maqāl: Authored by Shaykh Muhammad Sha’fa al-Mousavi Tafrishi
• Murattab al-Asānīd: Authored by Ayatollah Burojardi
• Mu’jam Rijal al-Hadith: Authored by Ayatollah al-Khu’i

Ways of Establishing the Trustworthiness of a Narrator

The trustworthiness of any narrator can be determined through one of two methods:

Specific Approvals (Tawthiqāt Khāṣṣa):

1. Mention by one of the infallibles (Ahl al-Bayt, peace be upon them)
2. Mention by one of the early scholars, such as Barqi or Kashi
3. Mention by a later scholar, such as al-Muhaqqiq al-Bahā’ī
4. The claim of consensus by an early scholar, such as the consensus about the trustworthiness of Ibrahim ibn Hashim, the father of Ali ibn Ibrahim al-Qummi
5. Praise indicating good appearance: Many praises found in the works of Rijal scholars suggest the presence of righteousness and justice in a narrator.
6. Efforts to collect circumstantial evidence.

General Approvals (Tawthiqāt ‘Āmma):

1. Consensus of the companions
2. Trusted companions and narrators: It is well-known that narrators like Muhammad ibn Abi ‘Umayr, Safwan ibn Yahya, and Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Abi Nasir Baznati narrate only from trusted sources, and anyone from whom they narrate is certainly trustworthy.
3. Famous companions known to narrate only from trustworthy sources, including Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn ‘Isa, Banu Fadl, Ja’far ibn Bashir al-Jubbali, Ahmad ibn Ali al-Najashi (author of al-Fihrist), Muhammad ibn Ismail ibn Maymun al-Za’farani, and Ali ibn al-Hasan al-Tatari.
4. The narrators of the Nawadir al-Hikmah chain: Anyone from whom Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn Yahya narrates in this book is considered trustworthy.
5. The narrators in the Kamil al-Ziyārah compilation by Shaykh Abu al-Qasim Ja’far ibn Muhammad ibn Qulwayh.
6. The narrators in the Tafseer al-Qummi compilation.

Terms in Hadith Science

Asl (Foundation): A collection of narrations that the narrator has directly heard from the Imam and recorded. If it is collected from another book, it is called Fara’ (branch).

Kitab and Tashnīf: These refer to works that not only include the words of the Imams but also contain the author’s own words.

Tawātur (Consecutive): The report of a group of narrators whose collective agreement on a lie is impossible, thus leading to certainty regarding the authenticity of the report.

Ahād (Single): A report narrated by only one or a few people such that without further corroboration, certainty regarding its truth cannot be established.

Common Classifications of Hadith

1. Sahīh (Authentic): A narration where the chain of transmission is composed entirely of reliable and trustworthy individuals.
2. Hasan (Good): A narration where all individuals in the chain are commendable, though the quality of their trustworthiness might not be explicitly stated.
3. Mutawatir: A narration that has been transmitted by a group of narrators whose collective testimony makes the claim of falsehood impossible.
4. Da’īf (Weak): A narration that fails to meet the requirements for any of the above categories.
5. Gharib (Rare): A narration that is rare either due to uncommon wording, content, or chain of transmission.

Praise and Criticism Terms

Terms of Praise: Some common expressions of praise include Thiqah (trustworthy), ‘Ayn (eminent), Wajh (distinguished), and Ṣadūq (truthful).

Terms of Criticism: Some common expressions of criticism include Da’īf (weak), Kadhdhāb (liar), Waddāʿ al-Ḥadīth (fabricator of Hadith), Ghall (extremist), and Mudhāb (confused).

Dirāya (The Science of Understanding Hadith)

Dirāya is the science that deals with the meaning of words in the text of a Hadith, explaining the implications of those words and addressing issues of generality, specificity, opposition, and more. The founder of this science is Qadi Abu Muhammad Hasan ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Ramharmizi (d. 360 AH), who authored al-Muhaddith al-Fādil to discuss this subject.

This science encompasses many intricate topics that this brief overview cannot fully cover.