Gambling

Ayatollah Nekounam's books

Gambling

Theology of Gambling, Understanding its Types, and the Examination of the Rules and Criteria of Healthy Competitions, Pledging, Betting, and Games of Chance

(May his secret be sanctified)

His Eminence Ayatollah Mohammad-Reza Nekooham
Author: Nekooham, Mohammad-Reza, 1327 –
Title: Gambling: Pledging, Betting, and Games of Chance
Theology of Gambling Types… / Mohammad-Reza Nekooham
Publication Details: Islamshahr, Sobhe Farda Publishing, 1390 (2011)

Physical Description: 280 pages
ISBN: 978-600-6435-34-3
Catalogue Number: 282059

Publisher: Sobhe Farda, Place of Printing: Naqsh Gostar
Edition: First, Print Year: 1390 (2011)
Circulation: 3000 Copies
Price: 150,000 Rials
Address: Tehran – Islamshahr – Nasimshahr – Vajeabad
Postal Code: 3769138575
Distribution Centre Phone: +9825 32 90 78
Website: www.nekoonam.com

Preface

The necessity of a cultural development based on religious rulings and teachings in the context of leisure activities, particularly competitions, is one of the most critical jurisprudential issues for our society during the period of Islamic governance.

Leisure activities encompass nearly all individuals, except for a small minority who are not inclined toward play or entertainment. From the dawn of humanity’s arrival on Earth, after securing their basic needs, humans have sought to occupy their leisure time in some form. It is widely understood that the human psyche is such that it cannot remain idle for long; without something or someone to engage with, humans are inclined to seek out activities. This psychological phenomenon, discussed in the philosophy of self-awareness, is a highly relevant and practical issue in social contexts. It is safe to say that modern humans devote a significant portion of their time and energy to various forms of entertainment. Due to the innate diversity of human nature, many different kinds of games and pastimes have been devised, sometimes leading to exploitation or even profiteering.

It is important to note that some individuals possess psychological traits that make them more prone to risk-taking. They are often drawn to games that introduce an element of danger. One such game is “gambling,” where some gamblers, driven by an urge to take risks, may even wager all their possessions, and sometimes even their spouse or children. Gambling has a long history, which will be explored in detail, and perhaps it could be said that this game is as old as humanity itself.

Gambling today appears in both traditional and modern forms. Some gamblers engage in the modern version, facilitated by computers, and many computer games could be considered forms of gambling. In other countries, such games are offered in casinos. These gamblers, often unconcerned about the religious implications of their actions, gamble without hesitation. In casinos, the rules and regulations are enforced by skilled referees, who have the authority to enforce compliance. Modern gambling also involves banks and public or private companies.

It could be said that, according to certain juridical systems, various forms of gambling are promoted and implemented by state banks, corporations, and even media outlets. However, when it comes to competitions, entertainment, and games, people in our society are not exposed to the diverse range of leisure activities found in other countries. The limited range of such activities, coupled with the relative youth of Iranian society in its modern form and the lack of comprehensive scholars who specialize in both religious affairs and entertainment, contribute to a scarcity of diverse pastimes in Iran. Despite this, the public is conflicted about the limited leisure activities available to them. On the one hand, activities that are endorsed by the state are presented as entertainment, while, on the other hand, many individuals are unsure of their religious permissibility. The desire for religious adherence raises concerns about whether these activities align with Islamic principles, preventing many from fully enjoying them or engaging with them in a manner that would allow them to relax and fulfil their natural desires.

Many people do not fully understand what gambling entails and what its specific examples are. Are some newly introduced forms of entertainment, especially computer games, considered gambling or not? In this book, we aim to address this issue independently and clarify the nature of gambling and its various forms in a society governed by Islamic law. It is clear that in order to arrive at a ruling on the permissibility or prohibition of gambling, a scholar must have a comprehensive understanding of the different types of gambling and their implications. This understanding is essential to deducing a ruling from primary sources.

In this work, we also examine the criteria that determine the prohibition of gambling. We will discuss how the stress, anxiety, and animosity caused by gambling, as well as the desire to outdo others, assert dominance, and indulge in arrogance, contribute to its moral prohibitions. Furthermore, the acts of pledging involved in gambling often extend to an individual’s entire wealth, and sometimes even their spouse and children, in a manner that is deemed highly problematic in Islamic law. We hope that this discussion will serve as a guide for the academic community and the youth in understanding the religious rulings on gambling and related activities such as competitions, betting, pledging, and games of chance.

Praise be to God alone

Gambling: A Study of its Types, Religious Rulings, and the Nature of Healthy Competitions, Pledging, Betting, and Lottery Games

By: Ayatollah Mohammad Reza Nekounam

Publisher: Sobhe Farda Publications, Islamshahr, 1390 (2011)

Introduction

The necessity for cultural development based on religious rulings and teachings, particularly in the realm of entertainment, competitions, and related activities, is one of the most important jurisprudential issues in our society, particularly in the time of Islamic governance.

Nearly all humans, with the exception of a small minority who are not inclined towards games and entertainment, are engaged in some form of leisure activity. Since the earliest days of human existence on Earth, once their fundamental needs were secured, people have sought ways to occupy their free time. It is well-known that human nature is such that it cannot remain idle without seeking something to engage with. This psychological trait, discussed in philosophy under the knowledge of the soul, is an important and highly applicable social issue. In fact, one could argue that the majority of human time and resources today are devoted to this pursuit. Creative thoughts and ideas, considering the nature of human diversity, lead to the design of various games and forms of entertainment, many of which are used for profit and, at times, exploitation.

It is essential to recognize that some individuals possess psychological traits that push them toward risky behaviour. Such individuals, whose brain structures differ from others, tend to engage in activities that involve risk during their leisure time. One of these activities is gambling. Some gamblers, even risking everything they own, including their family members, follow an internal drive that compels them to take such extreme risks. Gambling has a long history, one that traces back to the early generations of humanity.

Currently, gambling exists in both traditional and modern forms. Some gamblers participate in the modern version, which is facilitated through computers, while certain video games can be considered examples of gambling. These games are offered in casinos in other countries, and many gamblers engage in them without concern for the religious rulings surrounding gambling. In these casinos, order is maintained, and there are skilled referees who impose fines or penalties on anyone who violates the rules of the game.

In some countries, gambling is promoted and operated by banks, public and private companies, and even by national media outlets. According to some jurisprudential systems, these types of gambling are advertised and executed by these institutions. However, in the context of competitions, entertainment, and games, people in our society are not exposed to the diverse range of leisure activities available in other countries. Restrictions in this area exist. The relatively young and evolving nature of Iranian society, which has not experienced the modern form of such activities for long, combined with the lack of comprehensive religious scholars specializing in leisure activities, is one of the causes behind the limited variety of entertainment options in Iranian society.

Despite this, people in our society often face contradictions in relation to the limited entertainment options available to them. On one hand, the government supports certain forms of entertainment, while on the other hand, many individuals are confused about the religious permissibility of these activities. The deep commitment to religious adherence raises concerns about the legality of these activities and prevents people from enjoying and benefiting from them. Many members of our society do not fully understand what constitutes gambling, what its examples are, and whether some modern forms of entertainment, particularly video games, qualify as gambling.

In this book, we aim to independently address the issue, defining gambling and its various forms in the context of the current society under Islamic governance. It is evident that a scholar must understand the nature of gambling and its various manifestations to derive a ruling on its permissibility or prohibition from the Islamic sources. Understanding the characteristics of gambling is crucial to this process, as without knowing the underlying principles and characteristics, one cannot ascertain the various examples of gambling and their corresponding legal status.

We will also discuss the criteria for determining the prohibition of gambling, explaining how the stress and tension associated with gambling, along with the hatred and rivalry between participants, particularly the desire to dominate, assert superiority, and foster arrogance, are all integral parts of gambling. Moreover, the pledging that takes place in gambling can sometimes involve all of an individual’s wealth and even their family members, which serves as one of the grounds for prohibiting gambling. It is hoped that this discussion will guide both the academic community and young people in understanding the Islamic ruling on gambling and related activities, such as competitions, betting, pledging, and lotteries.

Definition of Gambling

The word “gambling” comes from the root “qamar,” which means moonlight and brightness. The term “qamar” appears 28 times in the Qur’an, corresponding to the number of nights it takes for the moon to complete its cycle around the Earth. The word “qamar” refers to the moon, which reflects light and brightness in the night sky.

The commonly used incorrect pronunciation of “gambling” is with a “d” in the middle, like the common mispronunciation of “masjid” as “masjīd” and “sakinah” as “sūkinah.”

The word “gambling” comes from the root “qamar,” meaning brightness and newness, and while religion is in accordance with nature and the rulings on gambling might seem surprising, it could be argued that gamblers have appropriated the term, giving it their own definition, similar to George Bush’s famous quote about the Nobel Peace Prize.

To address this issue, it is necessary to consult dictionary sources to understand the link between gambling and brightness and light.

The Relation Between Gambling and the Moon (Qamar)

As mentioned by the linguists, the moon is called “qamar” because it is bright and clearly visible in the darkness of the night. The moon is associated with the night, as it illuminates the dark sky. Even though the moon is visible at certain times during the day, it is most associated with the night and is a symbol of brightness in the darkness.

Similarly, gamblers often engaged in gambling activities at night, away from the eyes of the public, as they felt it was a social stigma. The association of gambling with the night, under the moon’s light, gave rise to its name. The term “gambling” is thus tied to the context of night and moonlight rather than to its actual mechanics of winning or losing.

Conclusion

The word “gambling” is derived from its historical practice, which took place under the cover of darkness, symbolized by the moon. As gambling became a hidden social activity, it was given a name that reflected the time and circumstances in which it occurred. Similarly, modern gamblers continue this tradition of secrecy, which is linked to the darker aspects of human nature and the inherent risks involved in such activities.

Islamic Prohibition of Gambling (Maysir) and Its Definition

Islam categorically prohibits gambling (maysir), and the Qur’an explicitly forbids it. In the prohibition of maysir, the clearest and most direct terminology is used, ensuring that the ruling is unequivocal and leaving no room for doubt. The definition of gambling in the Qur’an is based on a specific instance and designation rather than a conceptual or abstract definition. The meaning is derived from the analysis of the instances that constitute gambling.

The Relationship Between Gambling and Maysir

The relationship between gambling and maysir lies in the fact that, in terms of their instances, every gambling game is also maysir, much like the relationship between humans and mankind, which are conceptually distinct but essentially equal. In some ways, the terms “human” and “mankind” differ: “human” refers to the inner, emotional, and psychological state, while “mankind” refers to the outward physical appearance. Similarly, the terms gambling and maysir differ in their conceptual nuances. Gambling encompasses all types, whether involving collateral or not, while maysir refers to situations where collateral is involved, and the outcome cannot occur without it.

Moreover, while “maysir” refers to a state of ease or lack of effort, gambling refers to the act of engaging with gaming tools, which involves a form of ease but not necessarily in the same context. In gambling, an individual often wins large sums of money with minimal effort, a process considered prohibited in Islam, as it involves the movement of wealth from one person to another without a justified exchange.

The Qur’an uses the term “maysir” rather than “gambling” to highlight the aspect of collateral involved. The term “gambling” in Islamic jurisprudence is more technical, and we will discuss its specific legal meaning later.

We previously noted that gambling typically involves instruments or tools, but maysir involves both collateral and betting. Each term, despite their overlap, should not be conflated, as they have distinct legal implications in Islamic law. We should not assume that the ruling for one applies directly to the other, as each term must be understood on its own terms, based on the foundation of Sharia law.

The Conceptual Overlap and Terminological Distinctions Between Maysir and Gambling

There are narrations that describe maysir as a form of gambling, especially when it involves the use of gaming tools. However, while gambling and maysir are conceptually separate, they share the same practical instance in certain contexts. Both involve the use of gaming tools, and this is why the term “maysir” is used in such instances. Islamic scholars have often discussed gambling and maysir interchangeably, but in narrations, these terms are distinguished. Gambling involving tools without collateral is prohibited, just as collateral without gaming tools is also forbidden.

Maysir and gambling are not synonymous. In linguistic terms, no two words can be considered truly synonymous, as words are designed to reflect specific nuances. For example, while “sword” in Arabic can refer to any sword, the term “sharp sword” has a specific meaning. Gambling and maysir operate in a similar manner, where each term carries its distinct legal and conceptual weight.

Gambling involves the use of gaming tools, while maysir requires the presence of collateral. While gambling with collateral is more common, the distinction between the two terms remains important.

Thus, the term “maysir” applies to cases involving collateral, not just to gambling in the technical sense. Therefore, not all forms of gambling are necessarily prohibited; only those that involve collateral are considered unlawful.

Exploring Qur’anic Verses Regarding the Prohibition of Gambling

Verse 1: Surah Al-Baqarah, 2:219
“They ask you about wine and gambling. Say, ‘In them is great sin and [yet, some] benefit for people. But their sin is greater than their benefit.’ And they ask you what they should spend. Say, ‘The excess [beyond needs].’ Thus Allah makes clear to you the verses [of revelation] that you might give thought.”
This verse establishes the significant harms of wine and gambling, describing them as great sins (ithm kabir). The term “ithm” denotes something corrupting and detrimental, as opposed to “ma’asi” (sin), which can be a legal transgression.
Verse 2: Surah Al-Ma’idah, 5:90
“O you who have believed, indeed, intoxicants, gambling, [sacrificing on] stone alters [to other than Allah], and divining arrows are but defilement from the work of Satan, so avoid it that you may be successful.”
This verse categorically states that gambling is impure and works of Satan, advising believers to avoid them for their own success.
Verse 3: Surah Al-Ma’idah, 5:91
“Satan only wants to cause between you animosity and hatred through intoxicants and gambling and to avert you from the remembrance of Allah and from prayer. So will you not desist?”
The Qur’an highlights that gambling and intoxication create discord and enmity among people, urging believers to avoid these activities for spiritual and social harmony.
Verse 4: Surah Al-A’raf, 7:33
“Say, ‘My Lord has only forbidden immorality—what is apparent of it and what is concealed—and sin, and oppression without right, and that you associate with Allah that for which He has not sent down authority, and that you say about Allah that which you do not know.”
This verse reinforces the prohibition of sinful acts, which includes gambling, and calls for the avoidance of acts based on baseless claims.
Verse 5: Surah Al-Ma’idah, 5:3
“Prohibited to you [for food] are: dead meat, blood, the flesh of swine, and that on which has been invoked the name of other than Allah; that which has been killed by strangling, or by a violent blow, or by a headlong fall, or by being gored to death; that which has been [sacrificed] on the altars [of idols]; [forbidden is] the division [of meat] by chance arrows: that is impiety…”
This verse forbids the use of divining arrows, a form of gambling practiced in pre-Islamic Arabia, linking it with the broader category of impurity and sinful acts.
Narratives about Gambling (Qamar)
There are numerous narratives concerning gambling, or some of its specific forms, which have been discussed extensively. The most important of these are categorised below, with their analysis and interpretation provided. These narratives can be grouped into three main categories:
First Group: Narratives Concerning Gambling as a Game
The first category consists of narratives that focus on playing with gambling instruments without involving any stakes or wagers. In these narratives, gambling is primarily regarded as an illicit activity. Some of these narratives explicitly state that simply playing with gambling instruments, even without betting or placing stakes, is prohibited.
Playing with gambling instruments without stakes or wagers is viewed as a form of promoting indecency. Hence, playing with gambling instruments, even without a bet, is forbidden. It is similar to the case where one drinks water from a bottle that was once used for wine, despite the bottle being empty. The mere sight of such a bottle can lead the mind to associate it with alcohol consumption, and thus, using it for drinking water becomes forbidden because it promotes the dissemination of indecency (alcohol consumption). The prohibition of promoting indecency is supported by the following verse of the Qur’an:
(Indeed, those who like to spread immorality among the believers will have a painful punishment in this world and the Hereafter, and Allah knows, while you do not know.) (Quran 24:19).
Therefore, playing with gambling instruments, even without stakes, is forbidden because it is a form of promoting immorality.
The mere “mimicking of sinners” is also a concept that Islam emphasises and forbids, as it contributes to spreading indecency. Islam gives great importance to the use of specific terms and forbids the use of words such as “ra’ina” (meaning “look after us”) when speaking to the Prophet, advising believers to instead say “unzhurna” (meaning “look at us”). This is because the term “ra’ina” was used by the Jews and could resemble the act of imitating them, which is discouraged in Islam.
Similarly, in the case of gambling with instruments without stakes, imitating a group of sinners and outcasts is forbidden. These individuals are often associated with vices, dishonesty, and disregard for moral boundaries, and playing with gambling instruments falls into this category.
Second Group: Narratives Identifying Gambling and Maysir as Equivalent
The second category includes narratives that equate gambling and maysir, not as synonyms but in terms of their external characteristics and the context of their prohibition. These narratives suggest that playing gambling games without any stakes or betting is usually not the case, as gambling (in the context of stakes) and maysir often go hand in hand.
Third Group: Narratives Concerning Betting in Gambling
The third category focuses on the act of betting in gambling and deems it prohibited. In most of these narratives, gambling and maysir are treated as equivalent. After establishing the prohibition of gambling, some narratives make allowances for betting in certain forms of competition. This section opens a discussion on the concept of “racing and archery” in Islamic law, wherein betting on these activities might be permitted, provided that the stakes are not linked to gambling instruments.
Earlier, we mentioned that the relationship between gambling and maysir is not intrinsic. Rather, it is an incidental and non-necessary connection. This relationship is neither inherent in a logical nor a systematic sense, unlike other concepts that are intrinsically related. Therefore, it cannot be said that gambling and maysir (betting) are inseparable or that it is impossible to play gambling games without stakes. In summary, the narratives surrounding this issue present three different views regarding the relationship between gambling and maysir, and in all three cases, both gambling and maysir are prohibited.
Category 1: Narratives Regarding the Prohibition of Playing Gambling Instruments
In the time when these narratives were issued, gambling instruments varied for different social groups. For instance, kings used to play chess, middle-class people played cards and dice, while the lower classes played with eggs, and children played with walnuts. Some gambling games mentioned in the narratives include backgammon and chess.
Backgammon (Nard)
In “Fiqh al-Ridha” 7, it is stated: “Know that Allah the Almighty has prohibited all forms of gambling, instructed His servants to avoid them, and called them filth. He said: ‘It is filth from the work of Satan’; this includes games like chess, backgammon, and others. Backgammon is worse than chess. As for chess, taking it as a profession is disbelief in Allah, playing it is polytheism, and moving the pieces is a major sin. Saluting those who are preoccupied with it is also disbelief. Moving the pieces is like looking at the private parts of one’s mother. Playing backgammon is like eating the flesh of a pig, and playing it without gambling is like dipping one’s hand in pig’s flesh or blood. Those who play any of these games are like someone who persists in committing unlawful sexual acts. Avoid playing with rings and the fourteen-game set, as well as any form of gambling, including children’s games with walnuts, almonds, or dice. Avoid playing polo, for Satan will accompany you, and angels will flee from you. Anyone whose mount throws him off and he dies will enter the fire.”
Chess
In a hadith from Imam Sadiq 7, it is reported: “The Messenger of Allah prohibited playing chess and backgammon.”
The Prophet Muhammad 9 also said: “Anyone who plays backgammon is like one who eats pork.” Further narratives reinforce the prohibition of these games, indicating the severe consequences associated with engaging in them, even if no stakes are involved.
The explanation of the statement: “And the mover of it is like the one who moves pork meat” is worth noting that the example and the represented thing do not necessarily need to share the same characteristics and effects in all respects. Just as in the analogy: “Backbiting is worse than adultery,” the person who backbites does not receive the punishment for adultery, though they still face punishment. Similarly, the chess pieces are made from stone, wood, plastic, or other similar materials, and touching them does not make one’s hands impure in the same way touching pork does. The use of this analogy by the Imam is meant to highlight the severity of the disapproval of this game.
In “Al-Khassal” by Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Yahya, it is narrated by his father from Sahl ibn Ziyad, from Muhammad ibn Ja’far ibn Aqbah, from Hasan ibn Muhammad ibn Akht Abu Malik, from Abdullah ibn Sinan, from Abdulwahid ibn al-Mukhtar who said: “I asked Abu Abdullah (peace be upon him) about playing chess, and he said: ‘Indeed, the believer is occupied with other things than playing.'”
— Imam Sadiq (peace be upon him) was asked about playing chess, and he replied: “Indeed, the believer turns away from playing.”
From Muhammad ibn Ya’qub, from Ali ibn Ibrahim, from his father, from Hammad ibn Isa, it is narrated that a man from Basra came to Imam Al-‘Askari (peace be upon him) and said: “I sit with a group of people who play chess, and I do not play, but I watch.” Imam replied: “What business do you have with a gathering that Allah does not look upon?”
A similar narration from several of our companions, from Sahl ibn Ziyad, from Ali ibn Said, from Sulaiman al-Ja’afari, from Imam al-Ridha (peace be upon him) says: “The one who looks at chess is like the one looking into the fire.”
And from Ali ibn Ibrahim, from his father, from Ibn Abi ‘Umayr, from Hafs ibn al-Bukhtari, from whom he mentioned, from Abu Abdullah (peace be upon him) it is narrated: “Chess is from falsehood.”
This narration does not directly indicate the prohibition of chess, as it merely refers to chess as being “from falsehood,” and not every false thing is prohibited.
From him, from his father: from Ibn Abi ‘Umayr, from Muhammad ibn al-Hakam, from Umar ibn Yazid, from Abu Abdullah (peace be upon him), he said: “Indeed, every night of Ramadan, Allah Almighty frees some people from the fire, except for those who break their fast with intoxicants, those who are hostile, or those who possess a hawk. I said: ‘What does possessing a hawk mean?’ He said: ‘Chess.'”
Imam Sadiq (peace be upon him) says: “Indeed, every night of Ramadan, Allah frees some from the fire except for those who break their fast with alcohol, or those who are hostile, or those who possess a hawk.” Upon asking, the Imam clarified that “possessing a hawk” referred to playing chess.
It should be noted that “except for those who break their fast with intoxicants” does not mean those who fast but drink alcohol to break their fast. Rather, it refers to those who spend their day engaging in drinking instead of fasting, and how vile it is to do such a thing.
Even though the Imam’s audience was an Arab, the individual failed to understand his statement and asked what a “hawk owner” meant. From his question, it becomes clear that he was neither a gambler nor familiar with gambling. The Imam, therefore, used a term that professional chess players would understand. The term “owner of a hawk” is used to refer to chess, as it has connotations related to arrogance, and is named for the chess pieces themselves.
This narration, therefore, indicates the prohibition of chess, stating that even after entering hell and witnessing the torments of hell, these individuals are not pardoned. The focus of this narration is on gambling tools and considers using gambling tools as prohibited.
From Muhammad ibn Yahya, from Ahmad ibn Muhammad, from Ibn Fadhal, from Ali ibn Aqbah, from Ibn Bukayr, from Zararah, from Abu Abdullah (peace be upon him), it is narrated that he was asked about chess, the game of Shabib (referred to as the “king’s game”), and the game of Thalath. Imam Sadiq (peace be upon him) said: “When Allah distinguishes between truth and falsehood, which side will you be on?” The person replied: “On the side of falsehood.” Imam then said: “Then there is no good in it.”
Zararah, despite his esteemed position in jurisprudence, should have maintained proper etiquette in the presence of the infallible Imam and refrained from giving judgments, leaving the matter to the Imam, saying “You know best,” as it would be inappropriate to judge in the presence of the Imam.
The narrators’ understanding of proper etiquette when in the presence of the infallible should be examined, as this reflects their level of knowledge.
From Harun ibn Muslim, from Musaddad ibn Ziyad, from Abu Abdullah (peace be upon him), he was asked about chess, and he said: “Leave Zoroastrianism to its people; may Allah curse it.”
Imam Sadiq (peace be upon him) said: “Leave Zoroastrianism to its people; may Allah curse it.” This narration considers chess a symbol of the Zoroastrians and Iranians, much like camels were a symbol for the Arabs. While the Arabs knew little beyond poetry, camel-riding, and eating, the association between chess and the Iranians needs further investigation.
From Muhammad ibn Idris in the “Al-Sara’ir,” quoting from the “Jami’ al-Bazanti,” from Abu Basir, from Abu Abdullah (peace be upon him), he said: “Selling chess is prohibited, and eating its price is forbidden, making it a form of disbelief. Playing with it is polytheism, and greeting a person engaged in it is a major sin. The one who touches it with their hands is like the one who touches pork meat. They must wash their hands as they would after touching pork. Looking at it is like looking at the private parts of one’s mother. The one engaged in it or watching it is equally sinful, and greeting a person engaged in it is also sinful. Anyone who sits to play with it has taken a seat in hell, and their pleasure from it will turn into regret in the hereafter. Avoid sitting with those engaged in it, as it is a gathering where its members are under the wrath of Allah, expecting it at any moment, and it will engulf you as well.”
In this narration, Imam Sadiq (peace be upon him) condemns chess and compares various aspects of playing, watching, and even greeting players as sinful, leading to a harsh judgment of hell for those involved.
From Ibn Riaab, he says: “I entered upon Abu Abdullah (peace be upon him) and asked him: ‘What is your opinion on chess?’ He said: ‘The one who moves it is like the one who moves pork meat.’ I asked: ‘What about the one who moves pork meat?’ He said: ‘He must wash his hands.'”
This narration reiterates the idea that moving chess pieces is analogous to handling pork, and the person involved must wash their hands as if they had touched something impure.
From the “Tuhaf al-Uqoul” in the chapter on avoiding the unlawful, Imam Sadiq (peace be upon him) says: “Indeed, Allah has forbidden industries that are entirely harmful, such as the playing of chess, lutes, and all such distractions.”
Imam Sadiq (peace be upon him) states that Allah has prohibited industries and products that have no benefit other than corruption, including chess and similar distractions.
In a narration from the Prophet (peace be upon him) in “Lub al-Labab,” he says: “Cursed is the one who brings games like chess to the table.”
The Prophet (peace be upon him) curses those who bring games like chess into their lives, which are seen as distractions from faith.
From Imam Ridha (peace be upon him), it is said: “The one who keeps a tambourine, a lute, or anything like chess in their house for forty days, will face the anger of Allah. If they die during that time, they will die as an impious sinner, and their place is the fire, a miserable fate.”
Imam Ridha (peace be upon him) warns that keeping chess or similar instruments in the house for forty days brings Allah’s wrath and leads to a sinful death and eternal damnation.
Imam Sadiq (peace be upon him) is reported to have said: “The player of chess is a polytheist, and greeting those engrossed in it is a sin.”
This statement emphasizes that engaging with chess or even greeting those who play it is a form of sin and polytheism in the eyes of the Imam.
From “Awaali al-Laa’lee”: Imam Ali (peace be upon him) said: “Six groups should not be greeted: Jews, Christians, those who play backgammon and chess, drinkers, those who play the tambourine and lute, those who curse mothers, and poets.”
Imam Ali (peace be upon him) outlines groups that should not be greeted, including those who play backgammon and chess.
The Prophet (peace be upon him) is reported to have said: “The one who plays chess and the one who watches it
he explanation of the statement: “And the mover of it is like the one who moves pork meat” is worth noting that the example and the represented thing do not necessarily need to share the same characteristics and effects in all respects. Just as in the analogy: “Backbiting is worse than adultery,” the person who backbites does not receive the punishment for adultery, though they still face punishment. Similarly, the chess pieces are made from stone, wood, plastic, or other similar materials, and touching them does not make one’s hands impure in the same way touching pork does. The use of this analogy by the Imam is meant to highlight the severity of the disapproval of this game.
In “Al-Khassal” by Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Yahya, it is narrated by his father from Sahl ibn Ziyad, from Muhammad ibn Ja’far ibn Aqbah, from Hasan ibn Muhammad ibn Akht Abu Malik, from Abdullah ibn Sinan, from Abdulwahid ibn al-Mukhtar who said: “I asked Abu Abdullah (peace be upon him) about playing chess, and he said: ‘Indeed, the believer is occupied with other things than playing.'”
— Imam Sadiq (peace be upon him) was asked about playing chess, and he replied: “Indeed, the believer turns away from playing.”
From Muhammad ibn Ya’qub, from Ali ibn Ibrahim, from his father, from Hammad ibn Isa, it is narrated that a man from Basra came to Imam Al-‘Askari (peace be upon him) and said: “I sit with a group of people who play chess, and I do not play, but I watch.” Imam replied: “What business do you have with a gathering that Allah does not look upon?”
A similar narration from several of our companions, from Sahl ibn Ziyad, from Ali ibn Said, from Sulaiman al-Ja’afari, from Imam al-Ridha (peace be upon him) says: “The one who looks at chess is like the one looking into the fire.”
And from Ali ibn Ibrahim, from his father, from Ibn Abi ‘Umayr, from Hafs ibn al-Bukhtari, from whom he mentioned, from Abu Abdullah (peace be upon him) it is narrated: “Chess is from falsehood.”
This narration does not directly indicate the prohibition of chess, as it merely refers to chess as being “from falsehood,” and not every false thing is prohibited.
From him, from his father: from Ibn Abi ‘Umayr, from Muhammad ibn al-Hakam, from Umar ibn Yazid, from Abu Abdullah (peace be upon him), he said: “Indeed, every night of Ramadan, Allah Almighty frees some people from the fire, except for those who break their fast with intoxicants, those who are hostile, or those who possess a hawk. I said: ‘What does possessing a hawk mean?’ He said: ‘Chess.'”
Imam Sadiq (peace be upon him) says: “Indeed, every night of Ramadan, Allah frees some from the fire except for those who break their fast with alcohol, or those who are hostile, or those who possess a hawk.” Upon asking, the Imam clarified that “possessing a hawk” referred to playing chess.
It should be noted that “except for those who break their fast with intoxicants” does not mean those who fast but drink alcohol to break their fast. Rather, it refers to those who spend their day engaging in drinking instead of fasting, and how vile it is to do such a thing.
Even though the Imam’s audience was an Arab, the individual failed to understand his statement and asked what a “hawk owner” meant. From his question, it becomes clear that he was neither a gambler nor familiar with gambling. The Imam, therefore, used a term that professional chess players would understand. The term “owner of a hawk” is used to refer to chess, as it has connotations related to arrogance, and is named for the chess pieces themselves.
This narration, therefore, indicates the prohibition of chess, stating that even after entering hell and witnessing the torments of hell, these individuals are not pardoned. The focus of this narration is on gambling tools and considers using gambling tools as prohibited.
From Muhammad ibn Yahya, from Ahmad ibn Muhammad, from Ibn Fadhal, from Ali ibn Aqbah, from Ibn Bukayr, from Zararah, from Abu Abdullah (peace be upon him), it is narrated that he was asked about chess, the game of Shabib (referred to as the “king’s game”), and the game of Thalath. Imam Sadiq (peace be upon him) said: “When Allah distinguishes between truth and falsehood, which side will you be on?” The person replied: “On the side of falsehood.” Imam then said: “Then there is no good in it.”
Zararah, despite his esteemed position in jurisprudence, should have maintained proper etiquette in the presence of the infallible Imam and refrained from giving judgments, leaving the matter to the Imam, saying “You know best,” as it would be inappropriate to judge in the presence of the Imam.
The narrators’ understanding of proper etiquette when in the presence of the infallible should be examined, as this reflects their level of knowledge.
From Harun ibn Muslim, from Musaddad ibn Ziyad, from Abu Abdullah (peace be upon him), he was asked about chess, and he said: “Leave Zoroastrianism to its people; may Allah curse it.”
Imam Sadiq (peace be upon him) said: “Leave Zoroastrianism to its people; may Allah curse it.” This narration considers chess a symbol of the Zoroastrians and Iranians, much like camels were a symbol for the Arabs. While the Arabs knew little beyond poetry, camel-riding, and eating, the association between chess and the Iranians needs further investigation.
From Muhammad ibn Idris in the “Al-Sara’ir,” quoting from the “Jami’ al-Bazanti,” from Abu Basir, from Abu Abdullah (peace be upon him), he said: “Selling chess is prohibited, and eating its price is forbidden, making it a form of disbelief. Playing with it is polytheism, and greeting a person engaged in it is a major sin. The one who touches it with their hands is like the one who touches pork meat. They must wash their hands as they would after touching pork. Looking at it is like looking at the private parts of one’s mother. The one engaged in it or watching it is equally sinful, and greeting a person engaged in it is also sinful. Anyone who sits to play with it has taken a seat in hell, and their pleasure from it will turn into regret in the hereafter. Avoid sitting with those engaged in it, as it is a gathering where its members are under the wrath of Allah, expecting it at any moment, and it will engulf you as well.”
In this narration, Imam Sadiq (peace be upon him) condemns chess and compares various aspects of playing, watching, and even greeting players as sinful, leading to a harsh judgment of hell for those involved.
From Ibn Riaab, he says: “I entered upon Abu Abdullah (peace be upon him) and asked him: ‘What is your opinion on chess?’ He said: ‘The one who moves it is like the one who moves pork meat.’ I asked: ‘What about the one who moves pork meat?’ He said: ‘He must wash his hands.'”
This narration reiterates the idea that moving chess pieces is analogous to handling pork, and the person involved must wash their hands as if they had touched something impure.
From the “Tuhaf al-Uqoul” in the chapter on avoiding the unlawful, Imam Sadiq (peace be upon him) says: “Indeed, Allah has forbidden industries that are entirely harmful, such as the playing of chess, lutes, and all such distractions.”
Imam Sadiq (peace be upon him) states that Allah has prohibited industries and products that have no benefit other than corruption, including chess and similar distractions.
In a narration from the Prophet (peace be upon him) in “Lub al-Labab,” he says: “Cursed is the one who brings games like chess to the table.”
The Prophet (peace be upon him) curses those who bring games like chess into their lives, which are seen as distractions from faith.
From Imam Ridha (peace be upon him), it is said: “The one who keeps a tambourine, a lute, or anything like chess in their house for forty days, will face the anger of Allah. If they die during that time, they will die as an impious sinner, and their place is the fire, a miserable fate.”
Imam Ridha (peace be upon him) warns that keeping chess or similar instruments in the house for forty days brings Allah’s wrath and leads to a sinful death and eternal damnation.
Imam Sadiq (peace be upon him) is reported to have said: “The player of chess is a polytheist, and greeting those engrossed in it is a sin.”
This statement emphasizes that engaging with chess or even greeting those who play it is a form of sin and polytheism in the eyes of the Imam.
From “Awaali al-Laa’lee”: Imam Ali (peace be upon him) said: “Six groups should not be greeted: Jews, Christians, those who play backgammon and chess, drinkers, those who play the tambourine and lute, those who curse mothers, and poets.”
Imam Ali (peace be upon him) outlines groups that should not be greeted, including those who play backgammon and chess.
The Prophet (peace be upon him) is reported to have said: “The one who plays chess and the one who watches it have both engaged in unlawful actions.”
This narration similarly underscores the impermissibility of both playing and watching chess as sinful actions.
In summary, these narrations demonstrate a clear consensus within Islamic teachings that playing chess is strongly disapproved, with various comparisons and descriptions emphasizing the gravity of this disapproval.
Chess and its Two Aspects: Moral and Immoral
Chess is an activity that possesses both a moral and an immoral dimension. It enhances the intellect, and those who do not know chess often have limited and stagnant minds. Knowledge of chess removes naivety from an individual, but on the other hand, it can breed hardness of heart. In chess, no mercy is shown, much like the world of politics, which has no regard for familial ties and shapes politicians to fit the circumstances. In a chess game, sometimes a pawn captures a knight and, by doing so, checkmates the opponent, while at other times, pawns, with a single move, may give a check.
Chess players who lack religious upbringing develop hardness of heart, become deceitful, and engage in excessive calculation, leading to a reduction in their sincerity and moral conscience. This contrasts with the sport of wrestling, which is considered a noble pursuit. Often, a wrestler, who is victorious in a match, might choose to submit himself to the weaker opponent, embodying the concept of “The bravest of people are those who conquer their desires.” However, no such culture exists in chess, where players focus solely on checkmating their opponent and strategising to achieve this goal.
Chess is divided into two categories: street-level and royal chess. For those in politics, knowing chess is essential. Royal chess was primarily for political elites. A person aspiring to be a politician who does not know chess will be sidelined in the political arena and will struggle to stand their ground in political battles. The narrations and hadiths which describe chess as “filth from idols” refer specifically to the Abbasid chess, associated with greed and the exploitation of Mamun al-Abbasi, who used deception to have the head of Amin severed, as chess taught him that “you either kill or be killed.”
The Arrogance of Chess Players
In the hadiths related to chess, there is no mention of ransom or pawning, and playing with chess is prohibited because it involves gambling instruments.
The first narration not only considers chess as impure but equates it to idolatry, with playing chess being viewed as a form of polytheism. The question arises as to what aspect of chess could elevate it to the level of polytheism. We have previously provided an analysis of this matter, but here we will further explain that, in addition to this, chess was an instrument used by the oppressive rulers, and it fosters a sense of arrogance, instilling such pride in individuals that it can even lead them to claim godhood, elevating the idol of the self.
It is true that the phrase “Fajtanibu” does not signify prohibition but implies dislike, but the qualifying phrase “min al-awthān” confirms the prohibition. In particular, “al-rijs” does not mean impurity, but refers to something abominable, ugly, and reprehensible. Therefore, the narration suggests that chess, like idol worship, is something filthy and reprehensible, even if it is not associated with gambling or betting.
As for the concept of pawning, it is better understood as polytheism because it arises from abandoning religious beliefs and weakening one’s faith in pursuit of such gains. In the case of chess-playing without betting, it should be noted that chess was once a royal, aristocratic, and oppressive game played by rulers, courtiers, and politicians who used it to bolster their political acumen and to strengthen their falsehoods and hardness of heart.
Chess as a Symbol of Arrogance
Chess during the time of the early narrations had an imperial, oppressive, and arrogant image. The elite of society, the wealthy, and the political leaders played chess, which became a symbol of their political power. Even the materials of chess pieces and boards were luxurious, often made from the finest materials like gold, silver, and precious stones. Some of the monarchs in the past would spend exorbitant amounts on their chess sets, reinforcing their power and prestige.
The narrations about chess highlight its association with arrogance, injustice, and the rejection of the divine truth. Thus, it is labelled as an equivalent of idol worship due to the arrogance, pride, and indifference to spiritual matters that it fosters.
The Evolution of Chess
Over time, chess has transformed from a game of the powerful elite into a widespread intellectual activity. Today, chess is considered a cognitive sport, more often associated with strategy and critical thinking than with gambling. This shift in perspective reflects a fundamental change in the way chess is perceived: from a tool of the oppressive elite to a game that can be enjoyed by people from all walks of life.
Thus, although the early narrations of chess link it to gambling and oppression, the modern-day understanding of the game as a mental sport has altered its status. Chess, in its current form, is no longer viewed as an instrument of oppression or arrogance, but rather as a means to develop the mind and foster critical thinking.
The Balance between Intellectual Engagement and Emotional Detachment
It is true that chess can strengthen the intellect and promote logical thinking. However, it also carries the risk of diminishing empathy and emotional sensitivity, as it fosters a mindset of calculation, where individuals focus on “winning” at any cost. If played in moderation, chess can be a beneficial mental exercise, but excessive engagement may lead to a lack of emotional warmth and compassion.
Just as moderation is necessary in every aspect of life—whether it be in eating, praying, or studying—so too should it be applied to the practice of chess. Overindulgence in chess, like any other activity, can lead to negative consequences, including emotional detachment.
The Role of Social Context in Changing Perceptions
Chess has undergone a significant transformation in how it is perceived and used in society. While it was once the game of rulers and the elite, it is now enjoyed by people of all social classes. The social context has shifted, and this has led to a rethinking of the game’s status. The widespread acceptance of chess as a competitive intellectual sport has removed its association with gambling and imperialism.
Similarly, cultural shifts have allowed for the transformation of other practices that were once associated with oppression or arrogance, such as wearing certain clothes or engaging in particular social rituals. Social change has the power to redefine the meanings and uses of various practices, and this is evident in the case of chess.
Conclusion
While chess, in its historical context, was linked to arrogance, oppression, and the elite, its evolution into a game of intellectual strategy and competition has led to a significant shift in its cultural meaning. Today, chess is recognised for its cognitive benefits rather than its association with vice. As with any activity, it is important to engage with chess in moderation, balancing intellectual engagement with emotional sensitivity. Chess, like any tool, can be used for good or ill depending on the way it is approached and integrated into one’s life.

In this narration, gambling is presented alongside plundering. It is important to note that one of the causes of youth unemployment is the fear of engaging in activities that may be considered unlawful (haram), for which there is no valid religious documentation. However, by organising halal (permissible) competitions, a portion of the employment needs of young people can be addressed. Archery competitions, iron-man contests, wrestling, as well as artistic and theatrical competitions, are some of the job opportunities that have been neglected due to fears of their potential unlawful status. However, the permissibility of these activities is well-established and thoroughly explained in this book.

Section Two: Narrations regarding the equivalence of Maysir (gambling) and Qimar (gambling with stakes)

The Prohibition of Maysir and its Extension to Gambling

Tafseer al-Ayyashi: From Abu al-Hasan al-Ridha (peace be upon him), he said: “Maysir is gambling.”
Imam Ridha (peace be upon him) states that Maysir is essentially gambling.

In this narration, the statement is made that the subject, Maysir, is equivalent to gambling. It should be noted that logically, two terms cannot be synonymous in all contexts, and this narration is equating Maysir with gambling. Thus, since Maysir is prohibited, all forms of gambling, whether they involve stakes or not, are also forbidden. However, independent of this narration, should we wish to derive a ruling on Maysir and gambling, each must be examined separately, and they should not be conflated.

“Backgammon, chess, and the fourteenth game are all in the same category, and whatever involves gambling is Maysir.”

This narration serves as evidence for the prohibition of gambling in cases where there is no winning or losing.

The Prohibition of Gambling with Stakes

Ali ibn Ibrahim (in his Tafseer) narrates from Abu Jarood, from Abu Ja’far (peace be upon him) in relation to the verse: “Indeed, intoxicants, gambling, idols, and divining arrows are an abomination of Satan’s work. So avoid it” (Quran 5:90). He said: “As for intoxicants, it refers to all intoxicating drinks… as for Maysir, it refers to backgammon, chess, and all forms of gambling; as for idols, these are the idols worshipped by the polytheists; and as for the divining arrows, these are the arrows used by the pre-Islamic Arabs to divide the meat of animals. All of this, including buying, selling, or benefiting from these, is forbidden by God and regarded as impure and a work of Satan. And Allah has associated intoxicants and gambling with idols.”

This narration explicitly states that Maysir includes backgammon, chess, and all forms of gambling. The ruling is that every form of gambling is impermissible, and Maysir refers to gambling that involves stakes, indicating that the prohibition extends to any form of gambling.

Section Three: Narrations on the Prohibition of Gambling and the Invalidity of Stake-Setting

The Practice of Gambling and Its Relation to the Prohibition of Consuming Property Through Falsehood

Tafseer al-Ayyashi: From Muhammad ibn Ali, from Abu Abd Allah (peace be upon him), regarding the verse: “O you who have believed, do not consume your wealth among yourselves unjustly or by bribery, and do not use it to gain the hearing of the rulers in order that you may knowingly consume a part of the wealth of the people in sin and injustice” (Quran 2:188). He said: “God has prohibited gambling, for the Quraysh would gamble with a person’s family and wealth, and God prohibited them from doing so.”

This narration explains that gambling, when involving stakes (or collateral), is prohibited, as the verse implies that the exchange of property without legitimate cause is forbidden. Gambling is considered one such invalid exchange, as it involves winning or losing money or property with no productive effort.

The Concept of Earning Illegitimately Through Gambling

Property must be transferred through lawful means. Simply exerting effort is not a sufficient reason to make something permissible or impermissible. Gambling may seem to involve effort, but the wealth obtained through gambling is considered “easy money,” earned without real productive work. It is akin to someone receiving money for a service not truly rendered, or to theft, where the thief may experience difficulty and stress, but the gain is unlawful nonetheless.

In gambling, the gain is not based on legitimate effort or work but on luck and chance, and therefore, it is unlawful.

In this narration, gambling (Maysir) is mentioned alongside plunder. It must be noted that one of the contributing factors to youth unemployment is the fear of the illegitimacy of certain activities, for which no clear religious evidence can be found. However, by organising permissible competitions, it is possible to address some of the employment needs of young people. Archery contests, strongman competitions, wrestling, as well as artistic and theatrical contests, are among the job opportunities that have been overlooked due to fear of their permissibility, while the legitimacy of these activities has been extensively and conclusively demonstrated in this book.

Second Section: Narrations Regarding the Identical Nature of Maysir and Gambling
The Extension of the Prohibition of Maysir to Gambling

Tafseer al-Ayyashi: From Abu al-Hasan al-Ridha (A.S), who said: “Maysir is gambling.”
Imam Ridha (A.S) states that Maysir is gambling.

In this narration, the proposition is that Maysir is identical to gambling, not the other way around. It should be noted that from a logical standpoint, no two words can be perfectly synonymous. This narration aims to declare the legal ruling of gambling based on the concept of Maysir. Therefore, because Maysir is prohibited, all forms of gambling, whether involving stakes or not, are likewise prohibited. However, aside from these narrations, in order to determine the rulings for Maysir and gambling, separate arguments must be made for each, and they should not be conflated.

“Backgammon, chess, and other similar games are all of one type, and anything wagered on them is Maysir.”
This narration serves as evidence for the prohibition of gambling, even when no stakes or wagers are involved.

The Prohibition of Gambling Involving Stakes

Ali ibn Ibrahim (in his commentary), from Abu Jarrud, from Abu Ja’far (A.S), regarding the verse (Indeed, wine, gambling, idols, and divining arrows are abominations of Satan’s handiwork; avoid them), said: “As for wine: any intoxicating beverage; as for Maysir: it is backgammon and chess, and any game of chance is Maysir; as for the idols: these are the statues worshipped by the polytheists; as for the divining arrows: they are the arrows used by the pre-Islamic Arabs for drawing lots. All of these are forbidden to sell, buy, or benefit from, and are impure and the work of Satan. Allah has associated wine and gambling with idols.”

Imam Sadiq (A.S) was asked about the verse: “Indeed, wine, gambling, idols, and divining arrows are abominations of Satan’s handiwork; avoid them.” He replied: “Wine refers to any intoxicating beverage; Maysir refers to backgammon and chess, and any form of gambling is Maysir. Idols refer to the statues that were worshipped by the polytheists, and divining arrows refer to the arrows used by the pre-Islamic Arabs to divide meat. All of these, including their sale, purchase, and use, are prohibited, impure, and works of Satan. Allah has associated wine and gambling with idols.”

This narration serves as proof of the prohibition of gambling, and considers every game of chance, especially those involving stakes, as Maysir. Both Maysir and gambling are prohibited, similar to how Islam views backbiting and fornication as sinful. However, the comparison between Maysir and gambling is not identical to that between backbiting and fornication, as Maysir and gambling involve specific games and stakes, while backbiting and fornication involve different concepts. Despite this, both gambling and Maysir are prohibited for their similarities and the harmful consequences they carry.

“Anything that is gambled upon is Maysir, and anything that intoxicates is forbidden.”
This narration directly asserts that anything on which gambling is conducted is Maysir, and it is prohibited. The focus here is on the playing instruments used in gambling, not just on the gambling itself.
Tafseer al-Ayyashi: From Abu al-Hasan al-Ridha (A.S), he was heard saying: “Backgammon, chess, and the game of fourteen, and anything upon which gambling occurs is Maysir.”
Imam Ridha (A.S) states that backgammon, chess, the game of fourteen, and anything upon which gambling is conducted is Maysir.

This narration, with the expression “anything upon which gambling occurs,” deems all games involving chance, whether they have stakes or not, as Maysir and thus prohibited, without specifically mentioning stakes or collateral.

Muhammad ibn Ya’qub, from Muhammad ibn Yahya, from Ahmad ibn Muhammad, from Ma’mar ibn Khalad, from Abu al-Hasan (A.S), who said: “Backgammon, chess, and the game of fourteen are of equal status, and anything upon which gambling occurs is Maysir.”
Imam (A.S) states that backgammon, chess, and the game of fourteen are all regarded as one and the same, and anything upon which gambling is conducted is Maysir.

This narration equates backgammon, chess, and any gambling game with Maysir. It is important to note that gamblers are those who play with specific instruments of gambling. The exact instruments are well-known in gambling circles, and therefore, one cannot call just anything a gambling tool, much like not all cars are race cars. Identifying gambling tools is the task of specialists.

From Abdullah ibn Jundab, from Abu Abdullah (A.S), who said: “Chess is Maysir, and backgammon is Maysir.”
Imam Sadiq (A.S) states that both chess and backgammon are forms of Maysir and gambling.
Tafseer al-Ayyashi: From Ismail al-Ja’fi, from Abu Ja’far (A.S), who said: “Chess and backgammon are Maysir.”
Imam Baqir (A.S) states that both chess and backgammon are forms of Maysir and gambling.
From Ismail al-Ja’fi, from Abu Ja’far (A.S), who said: “Chess and backgammon are Maysir.”
Imam Baqir (A.S) reiterates that both chess and backgammon are Maysir and gambling.
Muhammad ibn al-Mas’udi al-Ayyashi in his commentary: From Husayn, from Musa ibn al-Qasim al-Ajli, from Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Ja’far, from his father, from his brother Musa, from his father Ja’far (A.S), who said: “Backgammon and chess are Maysir.”
Imam Sadiq (A.S) states that backgammon and chess are Maysir.
Tafseer Ali ibn Ibrahim: In the narration from Abu Jarrud, from Abu Ja’far (A.S) who said: “As for Maysir, it is backgammon, chess, and any gambling, and as for the idols, they are the statues worshipped by the polytheists, and as for the divining arrows, they are the arrows used by the pre-Islamic Arabs for drawing lots. All of these, including their sale, purchase, and use, are prohibited, impure, and the work of Satan. Allah has associated wine and gambling with idols.”
Imam Baqir (A.S) states that Maysir is indeed backgammon and chess, and all forms of gambling are Maysir. The idols refer to the statues worshipped by polytheists, and the divining arrows were used by pre-Islamic Arabs to divide animal meat. All such actions, including trading and benefiting from them, are prohibited by Allah and are impure, as they are the work of Satan.
Al-Husayn ibn Sa’id in the Book of Asceticism, narrated from some of our companions, from Ali ibn Shajarah, from his uncle Bashir al-Nibal, from Abu Abd Allah (AS) said:
A Bedouin came to the Prophet (PBUH) and said: “O Messenger of Allah, will you race me with your camel?” The Prophet (PBUH) agreed, and the Bedouin won the race. The Prophet (PBUH) then said: “You have overtaken my camel, and God wishes to humble it. Indeed, the mountains contended to take the ark of Noah (AS), and Mount Judi was the most humble of them. Therefore, Allah settled the ark upon Mount Judi.”
(Narrated by Imam Sadiq (AS) as per the tradition)
Basharat al-Mustafa (The Good News of the Chosen One):
The Shaykh al-‘Alim, Abu Ishaq Ismail ibn Abi al-Qasim ibn Ahmad al-Dailami, narrated from Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Bandar al-Sirafi, from Qadi Abu Ja’far Muhammad ibn Ali al-Jubayli, from Sayyid Abu Talib al-Husayni, from Abu Mansur Muhammad al-Dinuri, from Abu Shakir ibn al-Bakhtari, from Abdullah ibn Muhammad ibn al-Abbas al-Dhobi, from Yahya ibn Sa’id al-Qattan, from Abdullah ibn al-Wasim, from Abu Rafi’, who said:
“I was playing with al-Hasan ibn Ali (AS), who was a child, on a wooden toy. When my toy collided with his, I said, ‘You must carry me.’ He replied, ‘Woe to you, do you want to ride a back that the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) carried?’ So I refrained. Later, when his toy collided with mine, I said, ‘I will not carry you, as you did not carry me.’ He replied, ‘Would you not be pleased to carry the body that the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) carried?’ So I carried him.”
Amali al-Saduq:
Ibn al-Mutawakkil narrated from al-Sad Abadi, from al-Barqi, from his father, from Fadalah, from Zayd al-Shahham, from al-Sadiq (AS), from his ancestors, who said:
“One night, the Prophet (PBUH) entered the house of Fatimah (AS), and with him were al-Hasan and al-Husayn (AS). The Prophet (PBUH) said to them: ‘Get up and wrestle.’ They stood to wrestle, and Fatimah (AS) had stepped out for some task. Upon hearing the Prophet (PBUH) say: ‘Go on, Hasan, wrestle hard with Husayn and throw him,’ she said: ‘Father, how strange! Are you encouraging the elder to overpower the younger?’ The Prophet (PBUH) replied: ‘My daughter, are you not pleased that I say: ‘O Hasan, wrestle hard with Husayn and throw him down,’ and that my beloved Jibril (AS) says: ‘O Husayn, wrestle hard with Hasan and throw him down.'”
Dislike of Betting (Gambling)
Muhammad ibn Ali ibn al-Husayn, narrated from al-‘Ala’ ibn Sayabah, who said: I asked Abu Abd Allah (AS) about the testimony of someone who plays with pigeons. He said: “There is no harm in it if he is not known for corruption.” I said: “But some of our people say that Umar declared it as devilish.” He said: “Glory be to Allah! Do you not know that the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) said: ‘Indeed, the angels detest betting and curse its owner, except for the hoof, the foot, the feather, and the arrow. These are the events where the angels are present, and the Prophet (PBUH) raced with Usama ibn Zayd, and also conducted horse races.'”

This narration indicates that gambling is detested by angels. Betting is generally regarded as unacceptable, but there are exceptions as mentioned in this narration. Moreover, the Prophet (PBUH) did not oppose all forms of racing. Specifically, exceptions include races involving horses (hoofs), camels (feet), archery (feathers), and spear-throwing (arrows), as these activities do not invoke the angels’ detestation.

Analysis of the Term ‘Betting’ in the Hadith
It should be noted that the general prohibition mentioned in the hadith should be understood within its cultural and historical context. Betting (referred to as “rahān” in Arabic) is specifically seen as detestable, but certain exceptions are allowed, such as horse races, camel races, archery, and spear-throwing. The overall meaning of the narration suggests that while gambling is generally undesirable, specific exceptions exist that are not subject to the same censure.
1. Al-Hussain ibn Sa’id, in his book al-Zuhd, narrated from some of our companions, from Ali ibn Shajra, from his uncle Bashir al-Nabbal, who reported from Abu Abdullah (AS): A Bedouin came to the Prophet (PBUH) and said: “O Messenger of Allah, will you race me with your camel?” The Prophet (PBUH) responded: “Let us race.” The Bedouin won the race. The Prophet (PBUH) then said: “You have surpassed my camel, and Allah loves to lower what has been elevated. Indeed, the mountains competed for the Ark of Noah (AS), and the Mount of Judi was the most humble among them, so Allah caused the Ark to land there.”
2. Imam al-Sadiq (AS) said: “One day, a Bedouin came to the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) and said: ‘Will you race with me on my camel?’ The Prophet (PBUH) agreed, and they raced. The Bedouin won the race. The Prophet (PBUH) remarked: ‘You have gained superiority over my camel, and Allah loves to make it humble. Indeed, the mountains competed for the Ark of Noah (AS), and the Mount of Judi, the humblest among them, was the one where the Ark landed.'”
3. In Basharat al-Mustafa, it is narrated: “We were told by the scholar Shaykh Abu Ishaq Ismail ibn Abi al-Qasim al-Dailami, from Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Bandar al-Sirafi, from Judge Abu Ja’far Muhammad ibn Ali al-Jubbali, from Sayyid Abu Talib al-Husayni, from Abu Mansur Muhammad al-Dinuri, from Abu Shakir ibn al-Bakhtari, from Abdullah ibn Muhammad ibn al-Abbas al-Dhobi, from Yahya ibn Sa’id al-Qattan, from Abdullah ibn al-Wasim, from Abu Rafi’ who said: ‘I was playing with al-Hasan ibn Ali (AS) when he was a child with a wooden toy. Whenever my toy hit his, I would say: “Carry me.” He would reply: “Woe to you! Do you want to ride the back that the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) carried?” I would then desist. The next time my toy hit his, I said: “I will not carry you as you did not carry me.” He replied: “Do you not wish to carry a body that the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) carried?” So I carried him.'”
4. In Amali al-Saduq, it is narrated: “Ibn al-Mutawakkil narrated from al-Saad Abadi, from al-Barqi, from his father, from Fadalah, from Zayd al-Shaham, from al-Sadiq (AS), from his ancestors: ‘One night, the Prophet (PBUH) entered the house of Fatimah (AS) with al-Hasan and al-Husayn (AS) present. He said to them: ‘Get up and wrestle.’ They stood up to wrestle, and while Fatimah (AS) was outside doing some work, she came in and heard the Prophet (PBUH) saying: ‘Well done, Hasan! Take it to Husayn, bring him down!’ She exclaimed: ‘O father, how strange! Are you encouraging the older one to overcome the younger one?’ The Prophet (PBUH) replied: ‘My daughter, do you not wish for me to say: “O Hasan, take it to Husayn and bring him down”? And my friend Jibril (AS) says: “O Husayn, take it to Hasan and bring him down!”‘”
5. On the matter of ghurrah (horse-racing and gambling), Muhammad ibn Ali ibn al-Husayn narrated, quoting al-‘Ala’ ibn Sayabah, who said: “I asked Abu Abdullah (AS) about the testimony of someone who plays with pigeons. He replied: ‘It is permissible if the person is not known for corruption.’ I said: ‘But some among us say that Umar (RA) considered it devilish.’ He replied: ‘Subhan Allah! Did you not know that the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) said that angels shy away from gambling and curse its perpetrator, except in cases involving horses, camels, arrows, or spears? They are present at these events, as the Messenger of Allah (PBUH) himself raced Usama ibn Zayd and conducted horse races.'”
In this narration, the person engaging in gambling is cursed, and it is mentioned that angels abhor gambling. According to this narration, the type of gambling is what is abhorred, and it should at least be regarded as inappropriate unless it is declared forbidden. However, some narrations do not oppose the essence of racing, as exceptions are mentioned.
It is important to note that the generalization in this narration applies only to the customary forms of gambling, and not to all forms of gambling. For example, the narration should have mentioned a specific form of gambling (such as playing games with the wife) which is excluded. Therefore, the general meaning of the narration becomes ambiguous, and we should adhere only to the most certain cases which involve gambling, and therefore, the angels dislike the presence of gambling and curse its participants.
The legitimacy of a lawful spouse, however, the same action, during the period of menstruation, becomes forbidden and incurs an expiation; for it violates the system and nature.
In all these cases, the very act itself, in terms of its inherent nature, does not differ in terms of what is lawful or unlawful; it is performed in the same way, with the same external structure. However, in the case where religious law designates it as unlawful, the person is, in fact, attempting to subvert the system and disrupt nature, which is why the law treats it accordingly. This is similar to the restriction found in the rational laws of traffic regulations, which manifests as a monetary fine, whereas in religious law, it may appear as a punishment such as the death penalty or other prescribed punishments. Sometimes this sin and unnatural act escalates, becoming widespread among a people, leading to divine retribution, and those who subvert nature end up being subverted themselves. Divine punishment, which is often neglected today, has been a cause for concern, particularly as some Western groups seem to be willingly delving into every sin and corruption seen in previous nations. These sins, in today’s world, are often multiplied exponentially and become far worse and more depraved. In the commentary on the Qur’anic verse (Latarkabunna tabaqan an tabaq), this notion is addressed. Of course, if this punishment were to also befall the Eastern nations, they would deserve it, because they have neglected in promoting ethics and religious spirituality.
In any case, it is true that gambling is a type of game, much like a child playing with a doll, yet it holds a special aspect that makes it a form of impurity, one that is stamped with the label of “defilement.” This is because gambling is specific to those who are considered “corrupt” and are from the riffraff of society, individuals who do not shy away from violent acts, theft, plundering, and numerous other corrupt actions. These individuals are classified as “corrupt” because they seek to overthrow the natural order. Islam forbids such activities in order to prevent such individuals from becoming influential in society, ensuring they do not establish themselves socially. For this reason, gambling is prohibited, even if one were to flip a coin or move pieces of a chessboard or playing cards around—no harm would befall their hearing, nor would their speech falter. However, the instruments used in gambling, such as dice made from animal bone or walnuts from trees, are naturally part of the world; it is Satan who has invented the game and its rules. In fact, many of these instruments (like dice and cards) also have applications in sorcery. The issue lies not in the instruments themselves, but rather in how and by whom they are used. Therefore, when we say gambling is forbidden, whether or not there is an exchange involved, it is because of the corrupt consequences it carries.
It is possible to rectify the game of gambling by removing the instruments of gambling and the corruptions associated with it, and then returning it to the natural order. At that point, it would no longer be considered gambling, but rather another kind of game or competition. For example, some wrestling matches in the past led to the death of the winner, and many wrestlers were killed in the dark of night. Although such wrestling at that time was forbidden, this is no longer the case today, and no one harms wrestlers anymore. Similarly, competitions where winning and losing are involved are different from gambling and are akin to the profits that banks derive from people; banks receive this profit through one of the legitimate Islamic contracts, and in this way, the financial system operates within a legal framework. However, if the same profit is taken in the market in a non-Islamic manner, it is considered usury (riba), which is forbidden, as no proper guidance has been given to the individual on how to acquire profits within an Islamic contract. The market vendor only knows usury, whereas the bank understands how to operate in accordance with Islamic law and principles.
This is why we emphasize that an understanding of jurisprudence, which includes understanding the subject matter, evidence, and criteria, is essential. Such jurisprudence must develop within religious seminaries in order to guide and manage the system of society. Otherwise, jurisprudence that lacks knowledge of the subject and its ruling cannot be of practical use and lacks the power to govern. If the subject, evidence, and criteria for divine rulings are clarified, no wise person would refuse to accept them. Merely declaring something forbidden, without providing reasoning, does not make it correct, nor does it foster a true interest in religion.
Jurisprudence that does not grasp the meaning or, more importantly, the intention of the Shari’ah is naive and incapable of governing society. This is because there are many who would deceive such a jurist, to the point where the jurist himself may not realize it. A true jurist, however, must be wise and possess a sacred moral character, as was the case with the late Imam Khomeini, who could not be deceived by any individual from any nation. Because of his divine light and moral integrity, he understood the true intent of the Shari’ah and thus fulfilled his mission of establishing an Islamic government.
Gambling and Oppression
Psychologically, gambling is deeply rooted in domination, arrogance, and the desire for superiority; some are even willing to sacrifice their own lives and go to extreme lengths to prove their superiority, just as some political candidates globally risk everything to secure power. In gambling, the drive to dominate is as important as the wager itself, especially for those who are idle and hedonistic, for whom money holds little importance. Gambling often leads to sadism and addiction. A gambler addicted to sadism will do whatever it takes to prove that no one is superior to them, sometimes even to the point of leaving nothing for themselves. Gambling is not a legitimate, conventional competition, and Islam does not oppose the basic concept of competition. Gambling, however, involves a level of rivalry that transcends healthy competition and leads to conflict. Gambling creates enmity, hatred, and conflict, as the loser harbors resentment, and the winner, seeing the signs of bitterness, seeks to outdo the other in another field. This is why gambling, whether or not there is a wager involved, leads to hostility, and this is the criterion that makes it forbidden.
The Inseparable Corruptions of Gambling
When identifying the instruments of gambling, it must be remembered that the corruptions associated with them are inseparable. Wherever a gambling instrument exists, its inherent corruptions are also present. This is unlike musical instruments, where the moral implications depend on the cultural context and the nature of their use, such as the legitimate use of music in a society governed by Islamic principles. However, gambling instruments are not subject to time or cultural shifts; wherever an instrument of gambling exists, its corrupting effects are inherently tied to it. Although one may try to remove the negative consequences, gambling remains unlawful.
The Legitimacy and Prohibition of Gambling: An Islamic Perspective
In Islam, an act that is lawful in one context may become unlawful in another due to its impact on the natural system and human nature. For example, an act that may be permissible in normal circumstances could become prohibited during specific periods, such as menstruation, because it disrupts the natural order. Similarly, an act of gambling (maysir) may appear to be no different from other forms of recreation or games. However, in the context of Islamic law, gambling is not merely the act itself but a violation of the natural order, and this violation has legal consequences, including the payment of expiation (kaffarah). The act is not prohibited due to the inherent nature of the game or activity but because it constitutes an affront to the balance and system of nature. Just as in legal systems, where a fine might be imposed for violations such as traffic infractions, the Islamic legal framework punishes violations that disrupt the societal and natural order. The severity of such violations can extend beyond the individual, affecting entire communities and leading to divine punishment.
This punishment can manifest when a society, driven by moral negligence, indulges in behaviors that defy nature, as has occurred historically among various nations. Such behaviors, including the increase of widespread corruption, are not only causes of divine retribution but are indicative of a collective departure from ethical norms. Some interpretations of certain Qur’anic verses, such as “You shall surely traverse from stage to stage” (Quran 84:19), allude to this gradual decline in morality, which, if unchecked, brings about divine wrath. This is particularly relevant as the rise in the prevalence of vices today, which, in comparison to the past, has intensified exponentially in its magnitude and impurity.
Although gambling itself may be seen as a form of play, like children playing with toys, its fundamental nature creates a moral corruption that is considered a source of impurity (rijs) in Islamic teachings. Gambling is not merely a form of entertainment; it is a practice that typically involves individuals who are deemed “corrupt” and “disreputable,” often engaging in criminal acts such as theft, robbery, and other immoral behaviors. In Islamic law, these individuals are seen as threats to the social fabric because they seek to subvert the natural order. Islam prohibits the use of gambling instruments in order to prevent such individuals from gaining prominence in society. The harm lies not only in the act of gambling itself but in the personalities and behaviors it fosters. While playing with pieces such as dice or cards may not, in isolation, cause physical harm, the act of gambling creates a breeding ground for corruption.
Thus, when we declare gambling to be prohibited, it is not simply because of the material exchange involved, but because it is inherently tied to the moral and societal corruption that arises from such practices. In certain cases, the items used in gambling, such as dice or playing cards, may also be used for other illicit activities like sorcery or magic, compounding their negative influence. Therefore, gambling is prohibited not because the objects themselves are inherently harmful, but because of the social and moral degradation they facilitate.

It should be understood that competitions held without gambling devices, where a prize is awarded to the winners, are not considered gambling. This is because gambling devices are not involved, and as there is no religious prohibition against such competitions, transactions in this context do not present any issues according to rational economic principles.

Bank Prizes

Prizes awarded by banks or private companies are not considered gambling. However, prizes from banks and institutions funded by public money are permissible in principle, though they are regarded as one of the worst practices. Modern banking has created significant distortions in the economy and is recognised as a contributing factor to inflation. Instances of theft and money laundering within the banking system are not uncommon, especially in Iran, where the conditions for money laundering are particularly ripe. The current banking system fosters an imperialist mentality among the public, a matter we have discussed in economic debates.

Lottery Tickets

Lottery tickets are considered gambling because they involve betting based on numbers. However, there was a time when such tickets were distributed under the name of “welfare donations.” If the purpose of the distribution is to aid the poor and if the money contributed by the public is intended as a charity, with the welfare organization ensuring that it reaches those in need, this would not be considered gambling, whether or not a prize is awarded. In such a case, the practice would not be deemed gambling. The key distinction between these prizes and bank rewards lies in the fact that banks, profiting from the high interest rates they charge on public deposits, award prizes without concern for who the recipients are, and through a lottery process. Furthermore, the money deposited by the customer remains safe and refundable, while the customer’s money in a lottery ticket cannot be retrieved. If the purchase is made solely with the intent of receiving the prize, it would be considered gambling based on numbers. However, if the purchase is solely for charity and the prize is an incidental gain, without the individual intending to win, there is no issue, as the prize is given in return for the money and not the action itself, and thus the individual’s money is not unlawful.

Repentance of a Gambler

Someone who has earned money through gambling does not own it. They must repent for what they have lost, and it is better to forgive those with whom they gambled, particularly those to whom they lost money. Otherwise, they are liable for the money they lost. In gambling, beyond its financial consequences, there is also a moral consideration, as it represents the initiation of a sin. Therefore, it is appropriate to forgive one another and to repent.

As for the money gained through gambling, the individual is liable for returning the original amount. If the original money is lost, they must compensate for its value. If the person cannot identify the owner, but knows the amount, they must pay it as a form of restitution. If neither the amount nor the owner is known, and the gambling money has been mixed with other funds, they must pay a fifth of the total as restitution and seek forgiveness from God.

Gambling in the View of Jurisprudents

In jurisprudential texts, gambling is mostly discussed in books on commercial transactions, competitive sports, and testimony. Some of the relevant chapters in these texts that mention gambling laws include:

The Chapter on Gambling
The Chapter on Prohibited Profits from Gambling, Even with Dice, Nuts, and Eggs, Whether the Player is Accountable or Not
The Chapter on Prohibited Playing of Chess and Similar Games
The Chapter on Prohibited Playing with Dice and Other Gambling Devices
The Chapter on the Prohibition of Attending Games of Chess, Greeting Players, or Buying and Selling These Games
The Chapter on the Acceptability of Testimony from a Gambler and the Effect of Betting on a Race
The Book on Racing and Archery
The Chapter on Socialising with Sinners

In general, discussions of gambling in jurisprudence mainly focus on prohibited economic practices, competitive sports, and the laws regarding testimony. Gambling is considered a forbidden means of earning income, as outlined in discussions of unlawful profits. Similarly, in books on competitive sports, some games that involve winning and losing are considered forms of gambling. In books on testimony, it is stated that the testimony of a gambler is not accepted.

Regarding the definition of gambling, its categories, and the objects involved, there is little debate in jurisprudence. Jurisprudents generally rely on the definitions given in hadith and limit their focus to those games and competitions explicitly described as gambling in these texts.

We will primarily review and critique the opinions of Shaykh Ansari, the late Seyed Ahmad Khonsari, and Imam Khomeini, as these scholars have provided the most thorough and logical discussions of gambling. Their analyses have significantly shaped the discourse on gambling. By examining their works, one could argue that almost all discussions of gambling jurisprudence are thoroughly covered in these texts. For instance, in his book Jawaher al-Kalam, Shaykh al-Jawahir writes:

“The third issue: There is no doubt or disagreement that playing with all gambling devices is forbidden, including chess and dice, which, according to some reports, is more severe than chess, and the player of such games is likened to someone eating pork.”

However, these two scholars did not delve deeply into the exact definition of gambling and failed to provide a comprehensive analysis of what is meant by gambling in its various forms. In contrast, Shaykh Ansari’s analysis offers a clear and nuanced understanding of gambling, making his discussions a crucial point of reference in this field.

The distinction made by scholars like Shaykh Ansari about gambling—whether involving betting, gambling devices, or other forms of wagering—demands that scholars recognise the specifics of each case and understand the broader societal implications. We have argued that it is necessary for religious scholars to understand the societal harms and sins that gambling can cause, similar to how doctors must understand diseases without necessarily contracting them. This kind of understanding is critical for issuing correct and applicable religious rulings in today’s society.

It is intoxicating as wine, to the extent that it was stated: “Maysir” refers to the game of backgammon and chess, and any form of gambling is considered maysir — so much so that it was declared that the buying, selling, and even benefiting from such games is forbidden and unlawful.

In this hadith, the term “gambling” does not refer to its verbal noun form, as previously mentioned, so the usual objections do not apply. The hadith does not solely refer to gambling with gambling tools and stakes, but rather it prohibits playing with any gambling devices altogether. The evidence for this interpretation lies in the two phrases: “buying and selling” and “as for maysir, it is backgammon.”

One must pay attention to the fact that common usage also understands gambling as any game played with gambling instruments. Thus, if two people are playing with such instruments, regardless of whether they win or lose, it is still called gambling, just as if someone were playing with a ball, they would be considered to be playing with a ball by society. Therefore, it is not the stakes or wagers that define the essence of gambling, but rather the presence of gambling tools and their use. Play and amusement in themselves are not inherently problematic, just as entertainment is not, and we have discussed this issue in the second volume of the book The Jurisprudence of Music, Dance, Gambling, and Joy where we stated that it is the object of play or amusement that may render it unlawful. Staking and wagering are distinct issues from gambling and each carries its own ruling. People who become skilled in professional gambling sometimes engage in it without expecting a stake or wager, but due to their addiction to gambling or pride in their ability to win.

The concept, application, and ruling on gambling in evidence and narrations are clear and unambiguous, and there is no doubt about its prohibition. Simply playing with gambling tools is forbidden. However, if someone claims that certain tools are not gambling tools, that becomes a separate discussion, such as the case with chess, which today is not considered a gambling tool. On the other hand, if something was not considered a gambling tool in the past but is now regarded as one, playing with it is clearly forbidden.

Examples of Changing Context

It should be noted that a jurist can never change a ruling, but can only derive the rulings of issues based on their context. It is the context (subject matter) that can change, and with this change, a new ruling specific to that context is applied. For example, looking at the hair of a non-mahram woman is prohibited, but if in a town or village, women do not consider a part of their hair as part of their covering and they do not consider it as something to be veiled, looking at it is not an issue because it does not constitute an infringement; because they do not regard it as something sacred. Unless the look is accompanied by lustful or sinful intent, in which case the prohibition applies, otherwise, looking at them is like looking at women of the People of the Book.

Similarly, the religion states that a woman must observe the waiting period (iddah), but when it concerns a woman who has become impure, the ruling of iddah is lifted from her, regardless of whether she is pregnant or not, because the waiting period is a protection by the Shariah for the woman, and when a woman does not regard this as something sacred, she is not entitled to the waiting period. Another example is the prohibition of backbiting. However, if someone does not regard this as something sacred and becomes openly sinful, there is no obligation to show them respect, and if necessary, backbiting them does not pose an issue. In all these cases, it is the change in context, not the change in the ruling.

The Third: Betting on Non-Gambling Games

For example, betting on carrying heavy stones, wrestling, birds, jumping, and similar activities that are mentioned in the chapter on races and archery, and no narration is found allowing such actions. It appears that this type of activity is also prohibited and considered corrupt, and some have explicitly classified it as gambling. Allama Tabatabai in Misbah says that there is no disagreement on its prohibition and corruption. This is the apparent stance of those who deny the permissibility of betting in competitions other than those specified in the texts, and the place of disagreement is only without the exchange of a stake. Therefore, the disagreement is merely about the permissibility of betting without a stake, not with a stake.

This is also supported by the statement of Imam Sadiq (peace be upon him) that the Prophet (peace be upon him) said: “Angels are present at betting on horses, camels, and arrows, but all else is forbidden gambling.” And in another narration, the Prophet (peace be upon him) said: “Angels flee from gambling and curse its participants except in betting on horses, camels, arrows, and spears.”

Some contemporary scholars have concluded that the prohibition only applies to gambling involving specific tools designed for gambling, while betting without such tools only results in the invalidity of the transaction and the ownership of the stake does not transfer. Thus, their argument is that such betting only involves the corruption of the contract, not the sin of gambling itself. However, there is clear evidence from the narrations that such activities are categorically prohibited and lead to the curse of the angels, just as gambling is associated with intoxication and is part of the harmful activities condemned by Islamic law.

Conclusion:

It is important to distinguish between gambling and other forms of betting that do not involve gambling tools. Betting with non-gambling objects, even when accompanied by stakes, leads to corruption and invalid contracts. The key distinction lies in whether gambling tools are involved or not, with the ruling on the permissibility of such actions following from this distinction. The issues discussed here, including the wagering of stakes, do not change the fundamental nature of gambling, which is why these practices are universally considered forbidden in Islamic law.

The prohibition of gambling is established through a narration attributed to Imam Sadiq (a.s.), where he states:

“From Abu Abdullah (a.s.), I heard him say: ‘There is no harm in the testimony of the one who plays with pigeons, nor in the testimony of the one who participates in gambling, for the Messenger of Allah (s.a.w.) had horses raced, and he would say: ‘The angels attend the race of horses, the hoof, and the feathers, but other than that, it is unlawful gambling.’”

The esteemed Sheikh relies on this narration from Ibn Siyayba and considers all forms of gambling, except for the three specified events, to be prohibited. However, this narration does not imply that anything other than the three mentioned cases is prohibited. Rather, it clarifies that the three forms of racing—namely, horses, camels, and archery—are not considered gambling in Islam. Other forms of gambling, however, are unlawful, and angels do not attend those events. This narration does not intend to state that any form of racing or contest is necessarily unlawful, but rather that these three instances do not fall under the definition of gambling. Additionally, the narration makes an exception for these activities, which must be considered as distinct from gambling.

The narration cited by the Sheikh from the exegesis of al-‘Ayashi specifically addresses the concept of “maysir” (gambling), not races or competitions, and thus, it provides no indication on the matter at hand. Furthermore, it includes terminological discrepancies that need to be taken into account. The narration of Ma’mar ibn Khalad is also related to “maysir,” which does not pertain to games involving gambling devices without wagers, and it seems that the Sheikh is using these narrations to strengthen the jurisprudential knowledge of his students, even though he undermines his own argument.

In his interpretation of the narration from Jabir, Sheikh presents “mughālabah” (the act of overpowering) as involving a pledge or collateral. However, this is not the case, as “mughālabah” refers to gambling and games involving gambling devices, distinct from other competitive activities like wrestling and weightlifting.

The Sheikh also quotes the opinions of some of his contemporaries who align with our viewpoint, and we too support this. The Sheikh says:

“Some of our contemporary scholars have suggested that the prohibition is limited to cases involving gambling devices, and that gambling in general is not prohibited as long as no specific gambling devices are involved. However, in other forms of contest where no gambling devices are used, there is no intrinsic harm, and the issue relates only to the transaction and lack of ownership of the wager.”

According to this perspective, the prohibition is specific to activities involving gambling devices, and not all forms of contests can be deemed unlawful. If we were to declare every contest as forbidden, the prohibition would become overly broad and generalized, and the only reasonable conclusion would be to limit it to contests involving specific gambling tools. This interpretation is akin to the second verse of Surah al-Asr, which states: “Indeed, mankind is in loss”—referring to ordinary humans, and not extending this to Prophets and divine leaders, who are not in loss. However, there is a difference in our position with the aforementioned viewpoint, as they believe that the prohibition applies to pledging or collateral involved in contests, which we deem permissible and regard it as part of lawful transactions, aligning with the verse: “Allah has made trade lawful” (Surah al-Baqarah, 2:275).

The Sheikh acknowledges that a pledge used in a contest resembles a form of insurance, and some scholars previously argued that insurance was not permissible due to a lack of clear evidence. However, insurance is a legitimate transaction, and no evidence exists to support its prohibition. Similarly, in the case of contests where individuals place bets or pledges, the arrangement is rational, and there is no evidence to deem it unlawful, thus not falling under the category of gambling.

One scholar considered the pledge a form of fulfilling an oath or necessary vow, but the Sheikh dismissed this argument as unfounded, claiming that vows made within the context of a corrupt contract do not hold the same obligation. If this were the case, even unlawful gambling could be rendered permissible, which is clearly not the case.

Ultimately, the Sheikh not only deems the pledge invalid and prohibited, but he also renders it unlawful based on the principle of “eating property unlawfully.” However, it must be noted that the concept of “eating property unlawfully” requires clear evidence proving the transaction’s invalidity, and no such evidence is present in this case.

The Contest of the Iron Men

Among the contests mentioned by the Sheikh in the third issue is weightlifting. Young men in Medina sometimes competed in such events in the presence of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w.), who would never prohibit them from participating. Instead, he encouraged them to engage in larger competitions that involved controlling the self and mastering one’s desires. His intention was to foster a sense of resilience and bravery. While our discussion here pertains to the issue of pledges, it is clear that such competitions were not prohibited.

Competition with Birds, Falcons, and Jumping Events

The Sheikh also addresses betting without gambling devices in contests involving birds (such as falcons and eagles) or jumping, especially in modern forms of gymnastics where athletes perform intricate and astonishing movements. In the case of such competitions, there is no explicit scriptural prohibition, and this is why some scholars emphasize the prohibition of gambling in these contexts.

The General Principle: Legality of Competitions

It appears that the lack of evidence for the permissibility of certain competitions equates to their prohibition. This understanding reflects the historical dominance of the principle of caution in legal rulings, a mindset that prevailed among some jurists for centuries. However, contemporary scholars no longer hold this view, recognizing that each legal issue has its own foundation and cannot be universally generalized. In the absence of evidence for prohibition, the default ruling is permissibility.

The Fourth Issue: Overcoming Others Without a Pledge in Contests Not Explicitly Permitted by Text

The majority of jurists maintain that this action is prohibited, with some even asserting a consensus on the matter. This view is supported by several texts found in al-Tadhkirah (The Memorandum). One such passage states: “There is no permission for a contest in wrestling, whether with or without a wager, according to all our scholars. This is due to the general prohibition, except for the three types: horses, camels, and archery.” According to this reasoning, the prohibition extends beyond wrestling to other forms of contests as well. Another passage states: “It is not permissible to race on horseback, wrestle, or compete with birds, whether there is a wager or not.”

Further, it is claimed that contests involving the throwing of stones, using slings, or operating siege engines are also prohibited, whether they involve wagers or not. Thus, many jurists hold that these forms of competition are universally unlawful.

White Fazil and Zarara, who both consider maysir (gambling) and qimar (betting) as forms of falsity, argue that the prohibition on them stems from the fact that playing with gambling devices without staking (or placing a bet) falls within the realm of falsehood. This is an incorrect interpretation. Do you not see that lghw (vanity) is a matter that is false and futile but not necessarily prohibited? Similarly, speaking in words that have meaning, even if they are not true and are false, is not considered prohibited.

In the review of this narration, we mentioned that since the specific evidence for the absolute prohibition of gambling, whether or not it involves betting or staking, is clear, we cannot limit the scope of these narrations to just gambling involving stakes, and claim that only this specific type is prohibited.

The third point: Betting on games without the proper gambling tools, such as betting on lifting heavy stones, wrestling, bird racing, and other forms which are categorized under sabaq (races) and rami (shooting), are not expressly permitted in the texts. It appears that these are similarly included in the prohibition of gambling. Moreover, it seems that there is no disagreement about the prohibition of such competitions, and their prohibition is understood to be a legal one, as indicated by the texts which focus on competitions without stakes or rewards.

This is supported by the statement of Imam Al-Sadiq (p), where it is narrated that the Prophet Muhammad (p) said: “The angels attend betting with the foot, hoof, and feathers, but anything other than this is gambling and is forbidden.” In the narration of ‘Alaa ibn Sayaba from Al-Sadiq (p) from the Prophet (p), it is stated: “The angels flee from betting and curse the person who engages in it, except for hoof, feathers, and arrows.”

In the mashhur narration of Ma’amar ibn Khalad: “Whatever is bet on is maysir.” And in the narration from Jabir, Imam Al-Baqir (p) was asked, “O Messenger of Allah, what is maysir?” He replied: “Everything that is gambled upon, even with dice or nuts.”

Point three continued: Betting without using gambling tools (e.g., wagering on feats like lifting stones, wrestling, etc.) is essentially gambling, and as such, there is no doubt about its prohibition both from a legal perspective and in terms of the outcomes. Some have argued, based on the works of Al-Kafi and Al-Tahdhib, that there was a ruling by Amir al-Mu’minin (p) concerning a man who ate meat with his companions and made a condition: “If you eat it, it’s yours; if not, you owe so and so.” The ruling concluded that such an agreement is void, with no financial penalty on the food.

Regarding the wager in this case: It could be said that the sheep in question had no condition set for it, and therefore it was treated like a gift given through a faulty transaction, meaning that, based on a well-known legal principle, what is not liable for damage in a correct transaction should not be liable in a faulty one. Therefore, there is no penalty or prohibition arising from handling it.

However, it is important to be cautious when interpreting the aforementioned narrations, and one should avoid drawing conclusions without taking all factors into consideration.

The fourth point concerns competition without a prize or betting in cases where there is no text allowing such competition. Most scholars, as has been reported, have ruled that this is prohibited, and it is claimed that there is a consensus on this matter. The reasoning is likely based on the general prohibition of competition, unless it involves the three mentioned categories: the foot, hoof, or arrows. This is derived from the narration: “No competition except in arrows, hoof, or the foot.”

Regarding the narration of al-‘Alaa ibn Sayabah, the Prophet Muhammad (p) reportedly said that angels depart when betting occurs except for hoof, feathers, and arrows, indicating the prohibition of betting without these conditions.

This concludes the translation of the complex religious text. The analysis includes the legal and theological interpretations of gambling and betting in various forms, as well as historical narrations supporting the prohibition of such activities.

Fourth Issue: Gambling

Gambling is forbidden based on consensus, the Qur’an, and Hadith, particularly when it involves playing with tools designed for gambling and is accompanied by betting or wagering. This is the most certain case of gambling and maysir mentioned in the Qur’an, the hadiths, and the consensus. There is no difference in this ruling among various forms of gambling, whether it involves backgammon, chess, or others; it even extends to games using nuts or eggs, as they are considered by the common folk to be forms of gambling, even if the game itself is not initially recognized as such.

If there is doubt regarding whether a certain game constitutes gambling, the principle of “original prohibition” (اصالة الحرمة) applies, and it is considered as part of gambling and maysir based on textual evidence and religious verdicts. However, the issue under discussion is whether gambling and maysir apply to games that are played with gambling tools but without betting or wagering. Additionally, the question arises whether the term applies to games played without gambling tools, with or without a wager. It is worth mentioning that there is no doubt that gambling and maysir do not apply to cases involving non-gambling tools and no betting or wagering. Even though some jurists have applied the term to general forms of rivalry and competition, such usage contradicts the conventional understanding of gambling and maysir, as well as the interpretations offered by lexicographers. Moreover, this view opposes the definition of maysir as narrower or equivalent to gambling. For instance, as will be discussed, the common perception of gambling does not include general competition or rivalry, even if betting or wagering is involved. Accordingly, one who involves wagers in competitions of writing, reciting the Qur’an, speed racing, archery, and similar activities is not considered a gambler, and these activities are not categorized as gambling. The best and most accurate witness in this regard is the common understanding of the general public. Furthermore, this aligns with certain hadiths which permit competitive games with prizes, as these are treated as a form of reward and not gambling. The Qur’anic verse that forbids gambling cannot be generalized to include these cases, and they must be excluded from its application.

The noble verse states: (Indeed, wine, gambling, idols, and divining arrows are abominations of Satan’s handiwork, so avoid them). It will be explained later that maysir is a broader term than gambling and synonymous with it. These competitions do not fall under the category of maysir. Thus, if gambling tools are not involved, it is not considered gambling, even if there is rivalry and competition, and betting is present. This is because, as noted by many lexicographers, gambling is typically associated with specific tools and not with general competitive activities. For instance, dictionaries like “Qamus al-Lughah,” “Majma’ al-Bayan,” and “Al-Munjid al-Tulab” specifically mention the involvement of gambling tools.

Given that we have discussed the lexicographers’ views in detail, we will not elaborate further and will continue with the words of Imam Khomeini. Imam Khomeini, in his explanation, asserts:

“It is undeniable that playing with gambling tools for amusement and rivalry is one of the intended benefits, especially among tyrannical rulers and their princes. Thus, the command to avoid gambling is not restricted to playing with gambling tools with betting but is broader in scope. This is evident from the Qur’anic expression, which considers gambling as an abomination and a Satanic act.”

It is clear from this statement that Imam Khomeini does not consider betting or wagering as integral to the definition of gambling, but rather the use of gambling tools is what categorizes an activity as gambling. Hence, competitive games without gambling tools, even with rivalry and wagers, are not classified as gambling.

Imam Khomeini continues:

“There is no doubt that playing with gambling tools for enjoyment and rivalry is considered an activity aimed at benefiting from competition, particularly in the context of tyrants and their rulers. Therefore, the command to avoid playing with gambling tools accompanied by betting or wagers does not exclusively apply to gambling tools but extends beyond them.”

This indicates that Imam Khomeini’s stance is that it is the gambling tools themselves that make the activity a form of gambling, not the mere act of rivalry or competition, even when betting is involved. Accordingly, the prohibition of gambling applies only when gambling tools are used.

In this light, he remarks:

“The prohibition of gambling as outlined in the Qur’anic verse applies to gambling tools, not necessarily to general rivalry. The verse does not limit the prohibition to specific tools but refers to gambling in a broader sense.”

Imam Khomeini also emphasizes that when gambling tools are not involved, and there is no betting or wagering, the activity is not deemed to be gambling. Therefore, competitive activities such as those involving writing, reciting the Qur’an, racing, archery, and similar activities do not fall under the definition of gambling.

The argument that an asset is excluded from ownership merely because it is gambled upon is a weak possibility; rather, the opposite is undoubtedly true. However, the possibility that has been presented aligns with religious reasoning and does not contradict reason or religious teachings, as similar rulings are found in Islamic law. This ruling is comparable to the prohibition of eating from a table where wine is present. Based on this, we should not hastily dismiss the general application of the ruling based on an unlikely scenario or assumption.

It may even be possible to infer the prohibition upon the owner of the asset, as Imam Khomeini, may peace be upon him, ruled that any asset used as collateral in gambling is entirely prohibited for any form of use. While it is true that narrations use the expression “whatever is gambled upon,” which implies the prohibition of the asset upon which gambling takes place, it does not necessarily mean that the asset becomes prohibited for the owner. The phrase “whatever is gambled upon” refers to the transfer, transaction, and exchange of the asset, not to the asset still in the hands of its owner, who has not transferred it for any lawful reason. Therefore, such a scenario does not affect the individual’s right to use their asset. Gambling on such an asset is akin to the presence of urine on it; no jurist would issue a fatwa declaring that merely because urine is on a coin, it is prohibited to use it. Gambling does not involve any legal transfer of the asset, meaning the winning party does not become the owner, and the asset remains in the hands of its original owner. There is no evidence to suggest that it leaves their possession, nor does committing a sin upon it make it exit ownership, similar to a carpet upon which a sin may be committed. The evidence stating “whatever is gambled upon is maysir” and the narration regarding “tifl” refer specifically to the assets of others, as the owner’s own property is neither maysir nor tifl. If the asset has been acquired through a lawful method, it remains the property of the owner, who, like any other Muslim, deserves respect and dignity. Thus, Imam Khomeini’s statement, which indicates that such an asset does not lose its ownership, is correct.

The Gambling of Lovers’ Hearts

What we have discussed so far concerns the gambling of arrogant and selfish individuals, who aim to establish their “I-ness” above all else. This gambling ignites the flames of arrogance, inflates the sense of self-importance, and fuels a desire for superiority, making self-centeredness the essence of the gambling game. The gamblers of self-importance either play on a backgammon board or a political chessboard, as we have warned in our poetry:

“If you step on the weak, you will fall into disgrace,
If you fight with the weak, you will lose on this board of backgammon.”

The arrogance of the gambler brings forth pride, an accumulation that disregards others. Arrogance leads to oppression and denies any softness or humility, rendering the gambler foreign to loyalty, as we have said:

“For the sake of this world, both before and after,
In the gambling of the worthless, you will lose!”

The origin of arrogance lies with Iblis, who refused to bow before Adam, the embodiment of divine light. It was he who introduced gambling to humanity, transforming arrogance into a currency of the worldly market, blinding people to the pursuit of truth. Arrogance, which is incapable of accepting the truth, becomes a force of oppression. In today’s world, arrogance and oppression have taken on a subtler form. The arrogant sit in comfort, but they tighten their grip. Physical violence has become less common, replaced by soft oppression that isolates others. Arrogance is at the heart of all forms of oppression, stemming from a distorted view of oneself and others:

“I have a heart full of pain and sorrow,
The coldness and bitterness of my heart are overwhelming.”

Arrogance, self-importance, and pride are expressions of a false sense of superiority. These lead to deceit, manipulation, and hypocrisy, which are essential parts of the arrogant mindset. The worst form of this arrogance manifests in the gambling of those who seek to take the rightful place of others and crush the truth. Despite all their victories, they remain dishonorable, as shown in the story of this poem:

“With force and oppression, they subdue the people,
No one moves or speaks, their hearts are quiet and still.”

This gambling is a reflection of one’s immersion in worldly desires and the pursuit of self-glorification. It brings about selfishness, pride, and arrogance, ultimately leading the gambler to degrade even their own dignity in pursuit of superiority. The game of arrogance is played with no concern for the cost, and the gambler becomes increasingly self-centered and ruthless.

The place where Imam Hussain (a.s.) plays the full game of love, drinks the cup of unity to the dregs, and it is in this way that we call him the “Prophet of Love.” If the Holy Prophet (PBUH) is the seal of the messengers, and if his father, Imam Ali (a.s.), is the first and the last Imam, and the foundation of the Wilaya, then Imam Hussain (a.s.) is the Prophet of Love, and Karbala, which Imam Hussain (a.s.) possesses, has not been realised by any of the divine saints. This is the unique quality of Imam Hussain (a.s.) that on the day of Ashura, he gambles with all his existence in the game of love.

This is the same love gamble that is referred to as “complete loss”:

In the gamble of life, I lost my game,
Though the dice had fallen, the board remained.

I placed my heart on the wave of the sea of love,
Unaware of what my heart had done with my sight.

Your anger, O Beloved, was powerful enough to break my heart,
To me, it was the same whether I felt heat or cold.

At noon on Ashura, his blessed countenance becomes divine, so beautiful that it seems as if Allah has brought Himself to the earth and to Karbala. He says, “O swords, take me,” meaning, “Let the swords surround me and leave no mercy, for you are my sanctuary.”

Not only has my heart been stolen,
But my soul, with its wild desire for you,
Has captured my spirit and my will.

This is the same prayer of Arafah and Eid al-Adha! When the Imam says, “Let the swords embrace me,” it is God Himself who stands in Karbala.

Where can a heart more devoted than this be found?
Where can there be a heart that does not have the anguish of love and separation?

Here, there is no place for the story of Ibrahim and Isma’il,
Where an animal might be sacrificed as in the verse, “And We ransomed him with a great sacrifice” (37:107).

To fall in love with the Truth is purity,
For if one places their head on the blade of Truth, they are a true man.

The entire world is made up of the game of dice,
Even though the dice are thrown, it is not they who are in control, but the One who is.

He was unaware, lost in the absence of his Beloved,
Grief has no rival when it is with fidelity.

On this day, Imam Hussain (a.s.) empties all of love within himself, brings Truth in full form to Karbala, and all the supplication of Arafah is manifested in Karbala:

Tell them to take my life in your arms,
For dying in your presence is an honour.

What else do I seek from you, the intoxicated one?
For nothing but your essence has any worth for me.

Throw away the constraints of definition, whatever happens, happens!
For in your presence, this intoxication is the true gamble.

No more would I desire, this is enough!
Not the shroud, nor the grave, my heart belongs to the Essence of the Beloved.

Karbala is the gamble of love:

I am the die of “Truth,” and I am its final piece,
My essence is “He,” and I am perplexed by Him, O Friend.

Love seeks the destruction of the lover, calling him to annihilation and dissolution,
Until there is no self left in the lover, and the gamble of love is lost:

I am drunk, and my mind has left me,
In your gamble, where was the profit for me?

The lover, through his love, gradually perceives his dissolution:

Where is the dice’s face and the sound of the passing pieces?
What happened to the one who promised to meet me, the thirsty for the sight of you?

You promised that I would see you in two arcs,
What happened to the curve of the heart, O Beloved, whose sight was lost?

Love is a field of descent. It is a descent that is not a fall, but an elevation,
Ascending to the sanctified realm of majesty and far beyond that, to the station of the Essence without name and form:

I am free from the two worlds of need,
For the beauty of the Truth has become my adornment and my prayer.

I have freed myself from the world and the hereafter,
Every moment, I rejoice in my Beloved’s closeness.

I have detached myself from the false hopes of this world,
I gamble with the love of the Truth, pure and unyielding.

The two worlds of pain, separation, and grief are in my heart,
For each moment, I am afflicted with the sorrow of love.

I am not bound by false distinctions,
I am free, I am absolute, drowned in the grant of permission.

I am at peace, completely content, in the presence of the Truth,
Rejoicing, intoxicated, and proud before Him.

The lover, in the station of indeterminacy, wants nothing but the Truth,
And nothing can precede or surpass Him, for He is the First and the Last, and there is no before or after for the Truth:

The whole of my being is immersed in love,
For the pure soul and body, O Thou, Thou art the Essence.

My heart gambles with love, with You,
For You are the Judge and the record-keeper, and You are the Essence.

In that station, even the name of the Truth is a form of determination. In the station of “no name,” there is no title, and even “Truth” is named only in the sense of indeterminacy:

The gamble of all existence became the settled state of His essence,
For from His eternal union, He possesses a world that is everlasting.

The lover loves the Truth, but his devotion and love for Him are not his occupation,
For he has no other concern but the Truth and the Beloved.

Who knows what pain has entered my heart from You?
My instrument has broken, and I have lost everything.

O Moon, from wherever you are,
Your piece and die are marked in my heart.

He cares for nothing but the Truth, and his movement is one of love and existence:

I am the manifestation of my Essence,
For I am the thing, and in it, He is the Being.

Love is a conscious pursuit of the Beloved, not the lover’s will,
For only the will of the Truth works in this matter.

What a simple uproar it makes beside You,
Though I played Your game, and became the die of the Truth.

Love exists beyond will and choice,
For the lover has no will of his own to choose the Truth.

I have detached myself from my own desires,
I have left behind the noise of the world’s turmoil.

I am drunk and helpless before Your beauty,
I have placed my head at the foot of perfection.

My beauty has become the perfection of the Beloved,
And these two are difficult to distinguish in clarity.

Far from the visions of both, the Essence of Truth,
The Essence of Truth has given life to every particle with vitality.

Love is the arrival, and the lover is the one who possesses both love and the Beloved:

So engrossed have I become in You with a hundred signs,
That my heart is the die in this contest, and I am the piece.

I am ruined, for my heart and soul have become Yours,
Until Your union opens the path for my revival.

The lover is one who has reached union with the Beloved,
And one who has not is a seeker, whose love is pure longing.

Longing, the desire for the Beloved, is the preservation of the loss,
The flourishing of the gamble of love, with its loss and the boundless passion that has made him lost in the game of love:

I have given my heart to You,
I am in mourning, and all my moments are spent in this gamble.

I have a head, yet it is adorned with the crown of sorrow,
There is nowhere to step but my heart in this gamble.

The gamble of love flourishes from purity, internal clarity, and soft disposition,
For the one who has lost the gamble of love is harmoniously in tune with all creation.

In this very moment, tears flow like mirrors,
Unaware, who could be absent from Your love?

He sees everything with a single eye,
There is no evil, only beauty, and every face is a piece of the die of the Truth.

As we have said:

My heart has been destroyed by You; where is the heart that is not ruined?
I am freed from my garments, my soul and body have disappeared from my remembrance.

For the longing of Your cruelty, my heart has become content,
And in the cruelty of Your kindness, I give two hundred cries.

Everything before You is but a piece of the die of the Truth,
Where is the old opponent in front of You? He has become the die.

He sees no enemy and views all creation as his companion,
For the Truth is the companion of all.

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مصباح الانس

Library

Significant Sciences and Perspectives (Volume One)

The Scroll of Love

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