Jurisprudence of Ghina and Music (Volume 1)

Jurisprudence of Ghina and Music
(Volume One)

An Introduction to Phonetics, Musicology, Sound Therapy, and the Necessity of Interaction between Jurisprudence and Music

Jurisprudence of Ghina and Music / Volume One
(Quds Sarra)
His Eminence Ayatollah Mohammad Reza Nekounam

Bibliographic Details:

• Author: Nekounam, Mohammad Reza, b. 1327 AH (1948 CE)
• Title: Jurisprudence of Ghina and Music: An Introduction to Phonetics, Musicology, Sound Therapy, and the Necessity of Interaction between Jurisprudence and Music
• Publisher: Islamshahr, Sobh-e Farda Publications, 1393 AH (2014 CE)
• Physical Description: 7 volumes, Volume 1, 231 pages
• ISBN (Set): 978-600-6435-19-0
• ISBN (Volume 1): 978-600-6435-24-4
• Cataloguing Status: FIPA
• Note: Volumes 2–7 (First Edition: 1393 AH / 2014 CE) (FIPA)
• Alternative Title: An Introduction to Phonetics, Musicology, Sound Therapy, and the Necessity of Interaction between Jurisprudence and Music
• Subjects: Music (Jurisprudence), Islam and Music, Music – Fatwas
• Congress Classification: BP194.6/N8F7 1391
• Dewey Classification: 297.374
• National Bibliography Number: 3992942
• Publisher: Sobh-e Farda
• Printer: Naghsh Gostar
• Edition: First
• Publication Date: 1393 AH (2014 CE)
• Print Run: 3,000 copies
• Price (Set): 330,000 Tomans
• Distribution Centre: Qom, Amin Boulevard, Alley 24, First Left Sub-Alley, No. 76
• Contact Number: 025-32901578
• Website: www.nekounam.ir
• Copyright: Reserved by the Author

Preface

This book seeks to provide a detailed, thematic, and comparative analysis of the rulings pertaining to various forms of sound, music, and associated activities. Drawing upon an extensive understanding of phonetics, musical structures, and vocal techniques, as well as a profound engagement with jurisprudential sources and requisite psychological insights, it aims to elucidate the legal status of sound, voice, ghina (melodic singing), music, tarab (musical rapture), tarji‘ (repetitive chanting), lahw (frivolity), laghw (futility), la‘b (play), batil (falsehood), dance, clapping, snapping, ecstasy, exultation, joy, delight, and pleasure. The study addresses these subjects comprehensively and argumentatively, encompassing all facets of music, sound, voice, and associated expressions of joy, such as dance.

Ghina, music, and dance are topics that have yet to be subjected to a thorough and cohesive investigation. Existing monographs, though limited in number, fail to provide clear, definitive, or articulate conclusions. Many authors, including jurists and scholars, have lacked sufficient knowledge of musicology and related disciplines, approaching these subjects merely conceptually or linguistically. Moreover, ghina, music, and recreational activities in general have often been manipulated by political agendas. Some scholars, due to their reverence for sanctity, have entirely shunned these matters, while others who pursued musicology or related sciences faced accusations without substantiated evidence. Nevertheless, a select few Islamic philosophers and scholars have possessed considerable expertise in musicology.

This book examines ghina, music, and dance, providing essential historical context and establishing the criteria and rationale for their rulings. It also incorporates insights from music therapy, dance therapy, and joy therapy as appropriate. The study prioritises primary sources of legal rulings—namely, the Qur’an and Sunnah—offering an in-depth analysis of relevant textual evidence. The objective is to uncover and articulate divine rulings on these matters, irrespective of the outcome, through rigorous scholarly inquiry.

We have titled this work Jurisprudence of Ghina and Music. Here, ‘jurisprudence’ does not refer to the conventional understanding, which focuses solely on deriving rulings without regard for subject matter or rationale. Instead, it denotes a jurisprudence that integrates a thorough understanding of the subject and its criteria to formulate rulings. Such an approach necessitates the integration of rational sciences, sociology, psychology, and other relevant disciplines into the jurisprudential process. Just as law is recognised as a pioneering discipline in the modern era, a legal system grounded in Shi‘i principles must be established. Likewise, Islamic governance should manifest as a philosophy of social trust rather than authoritarian discipline. Jurisprudence must emerge from its imposed obscurity, born of rigid methodologies, and return to its liberated essence: a comprehensive understanding of religious-scientific propositions and the delineation of a balanced economic life.

Jurisprudence, in this sense, entails grasping the intent of the Lawgiver, requiring proficiency in the linguistics of jurisprudential texts and, indeed, the language of all religious propositions. This prevents the jurist from falling into one-dimensional religious interpretations. Understanding the Lawgiver’s intent hinges on possessing their epistemological framework, rather than relying solely on isolated statements or unilateral analyses of terms without considering the primary objective. Jurisprudence is replete with propositions where implied meanings, metaphors, and allusions outweigh explicit statements. The Lawgiver embeds intentions within jurisprudential texts, necessitating meticulous discovery and deduction. Superficial reliance on the literal meaning of terms distances the nominal jurist from the intended purpose, whereas the true jurist attains the Lawgiver’s objectives by grasping the subject, criteria, and the broader epistemological system of the sacred Lawgiver.

A governance based on superficial jurisprudence risks distorting and undermining religion, rendering the Shari‘a ineffective. Jurisprudence, as the most pivotal aspect of religion, underpins law and shapes societal frameworks. Clichéd or superficial applications of jurisprudence, particularly in a society governed by its values, can provoke anti-jurisprudential social currents. Historical parallels, such as the Safavids, who built their movement on superficial dervish clichés, demonstrate this. Lacking scholarly or popular support, they declined into incompetence and extinction. Today, the dervish movement has waned, either aligning with foreign influences or appealing to simplistic, superficial spiritualists.

Conversely, a jurisprudence rooted in subject identification and criterion establishment eliminates baseless imitation, which aligns with complacency and negligence. It fosters rigorous, evidence-based inquiry, justifying religious propositions and elucidating their wisdom. Such a jurisprudence can engage in dialogue with liberal democratic law and secular philosophies. Just as the United Nations and governments operate through law and jurisprudence, rather than philosophy or mysticism, this underscores jurisprudence’s critical role in human life. Criticisms of jurisprudence often target jurists’ approaches to religious propositions, misconstrued as attacks on jurisprudence itself. The modern academic world embraces any discipline that articulates its scholarly merit and engages in contemporary scientific discourse, provided it is methodologically rigorous.

Among the disciplines serving jurisprudence are sociology and psychology, which significantly influence the process of deriving fatwas. Jurisprudence requires subject identification, and understanding the societal context of the obligated is integral to this. Without this, a jurist may erroneously apply a ruling to an irrelevant subject. Many jurists’ purely devotional approach to rulings, neglecting subject identification, has marginalised disciplines like sociology and psychology. However, a jurisprudence that prioritises subject and criterion identification recognises its dependence on these social sciences, fostering their development and expanding the scope of jurisprudential prerequisites.

This work, beyond exhaustively analysing textual sources on ghina, music, and associated expressions of joy (e.g., dance, foot-stamping, and hand-waving), incorporates psychological and sociological perspectives. It thoroughly examines the views of independent jurists, critically evaluates their opinions, and addresses the perspectives of their followers, while maintaining a historical progression. Volumes four and five specifically survey the opinions of jurists from the Occultation era to the present, with particular emphasis on critiquing Shaykh Ansari, regarded as a preeminent Shi‘i jurist and mentor to later scholars.

The book systematically reviews the perspectives of jurists from the fourth century AH to the present, including:

Scholars of the Fourth to Tenth Centuries:

• Shaykh Saduq (d. 381 AH)
• Shaykh Mufid (d. 413 AH)
• Shaykh Tusi (d. 460 AH)
• Ibn Idris (d. 598 AH)
• Muhaqqiq Hilli (d. 676 AH)
• Allama Hilli (d. 726 AH)
• Shahid Thani (d. 965 AH)
• Muqaddas Ardabili (d. 993 AH)

Jurists of the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries:

• Shaykh Bahai (d. 1030 AH)
• Muhaqqiq Sabzawari (d. 1090 AH)
• Shaykh Ali Amili (d. 1104 AH)
• Fayd Kashani (d. 1115 AH)
• Abu Hamid Ghazali (d. 505 AH)
• Shaykh Hurr Amili (d. 1104 AH)
• Mir Lawhi (d. 1113 AH)
• Muhammad Darabi (c. 1130 AH)
• Shaykh Yusuf Bahrani (d. 1186 AH)

Scholars of the Thirteenth Century:

• Sayyid Muhammad Jawad Husayni Amili (d. 1226 AH)
• Shaykh Muhammad Hasan Najafi (d. 1266 AH)
• Shaykh Ansari (d. 1218 AH)

Jurists of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries:

• Shaykh Muhammad Hasan Mamaqani (d. 1323 AH)
• Aqa Sayyid Ahmad Khwansari (d. 1405 AH)
• Imam Khomeini
• Ayatollah Khoei
• Ayatollah Golpayegani
• Ayatollah Mar‘ashi Najafi

This book, underpinned by comprehensive knowledge of music, dance, and thorough subject expertise, combined with jurisprudential ijtihad and sociological, psychological, and philosophical specialisation, is poised to resolve longstanding debates in the radiant era of the Islamic Revolution. This period, marked by the institutionalisation of religious commitment, the exposure of anti-religious elements, and the unmasking of hypocritical and malevolent actors, demands such a work. It may serve as a definitive reference or a catalyst for profound, multifaceted research into musical melodies, though dogmatic thinkers may resist abandoning entrenched traditions.

With its nuanced and meticulous approach to rulings, this book can serve as a reliable source for drafting comprehensive legislation in national censorship sectors, including the Ministry of Culture, state media, and institutions related to entertainment and leisure. All recreational activities and musicology require legal frameworks, and musicians, legislators, and regulators must be well-versed in these laws. Regrettably, over two decades after the Islamic Revolution, this remains a gap in the Islamic system, causing challenges for regulatory bodies. This book aims to pave the way for addressing this deficiency.

The findings of this book, excluding its jurisprudential arguments, are presented in Logic of Music, where ‘fallacies of ghina studies’ are addressed in a distinct style, simplifying the complexities of this work. Additionally, Analytical History of Music in Islam provides a more comprehensive historical treatment of music. Critics of this book are advised to study these complementary works. Further, Jurisprudence of Purity and Joy explores the philosophy of art, entertainment, and joyful activities, while Jurisprudence of Gambling addresses the jurisprudence of wholesome competitions.

And all praise belongs to Allah, Lord of the worlds.

Chapter One: Jurisprudence and the Necessity of Understanding Music

Mathematics: The Origin of Musicology

In ancient philosophy, music was regarded as a branch of mathematical science. The eminent Islamic philosopher Avicenna (Ibn Sina) includes musicology in his philosophical work Al-Shifa’. Ancient philosophy encompassed a broad array of sciences, and a philosopher was expected to master them all. Avicenna, concluding his treatment of mathematics in Al-Shifa’, addresses the science of music.

In his Nasirean Ethics, Khwaja Nasir al-Din Tusi, translating Taharah al-A‘raq, divides theoretical philosophy as follows:

“One is the science of that which does not require material association for its existence, and another is the science of that which cannot exist without material association. The latter is further divided into two: that which does not require material association for its conceptualisation, and that which is known through material association. Thus, theoretical philosophy comprises three branches: metaphysics, mathematics, and natural science.”

Theoretical philosophy addresses either material or immaterial entities. Its subjects may depend on matter for existence or conceptualisation. If neither existence nor conceptualisation requires matter, it is termed ‘divine science’. If matter is required only for existence, it is ‘mathematics’. If both existence and conceptualisation depend on matter, it is ‘natural science’.

Divine science encompasses knowledge of God, His active attributes, and metaphysical entities such as intellects, celestial souls, and universal principles like unity and multiplicity, constituting first philosophy. Knowledge of prophethood, imamah, wilayah, resurrection, and metaphysical phenomena falls within this domain.

Mathematics includes principal branches such as geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, and ‘composition science’, which, when applied to sound, is termed ‘musicology’. Its secondary branches include optics, algebra, mechanics, and certain occult sciences like geomancy and astrology, which rely on mathematical preliminaries, though their realisation transcends these foundations.

Musicology belongs to the third category of philosophical sciences: those requiring matter for existence but not for conceptualisation. It serves as a bridge between divine and natural sciences, akin to arithmetic operations like addition or subtraction, which require no material basis. Tusi limits foundational sciences to theology, physics, and mathematics, though their interconnections, particularly within mathematics, are elaborated in our work Science of Life.

Based on this philosophical classification, music is a branch of mathematics, a cornerstone of philosophy. A philosopher ignorant of these sciences is deficient in philosophical understanding. Mathematics rests on four pillars:

1. Geometry: The study of magnitude, its properties, and corollaries, addressing continuous quantity.
2. Arithmetic: The study of numbers and their properties, addressing discrete quantity.
3. Astronomy: The study of celestial bodies, their relations, and their influence on terrestrial entities.
4. Composition: The study of harmonic ratios and their states, termed ‘musicology’ when applied to sound, involving the arrangement and structuring of sounds.

Musicology, akin to phonetics, acoustics, and prosody, involves composing and arranging sounds. Professional musicology necessitates knowledge of general sciences, natural sciences, arithmetic, and geometry. For instance, extending a sound resembles a geometric line, while vocal trills resemble numerical sequences. In ancient philosophy, extending a sound, such as in Qur’anic recitation, is considered a continuous quantity.

However, we diverge from this view, considering sound a discrete entity rather than a continuous quantity. In our philosophical system, which rejects essentialism, distinctions like substance and accident are reframed. We deny continuity in phenomena, viewing all entities as discrete arrangements bound by love. Sound, like number, is a discrete entity, not a continuous quantity—a perspective to bear in mind throughout this book to avoid conflating our view with ancient philosophy.

Speech and verbal creation arise from the vibration of air and vocal cords, producing sound. Regardless of wavelength, sound remains a unified, discrete reality. In our philosophy, nothing is continuous; phenomena are composed of discrete particles arranged cohesively. Sound, like number, is a discrete entity with unity across its manifestations, akin to evenness in numbers, where no gradation exists.

The harmony and proportionality of composed sounds underpin their beauty and appeal. For example, elegant calligraphy requires proportional letters, beautiful poetry demands harmonious words, and an animal or face is deemed beautiful when its parts are balanced. Sound, too, is beautiful when its pitch, tone, duration, and articulation are harmonised, constituting ghina. Musicology studies these proportional arrangements, discussing note sequences, pitch variations, and other discrete sound characteristics. The jurist then evaluates whether engaging with such harmonic compositions is permissible or forbidden.

Instrumental harmony is termed ‘rhythm’ (iqa‘), and the oud serves as a measure for distinguishing authentic from corrupt ghina, akin to logic distinguishing true from false propositions. Musicology discerns, for instance, when a performer shifts improperly between musical modes, ensuring the purity of sound composition.

Avicenna, in Al-Shifa’, defines musicology thus:

“It is time to conclude the mathematical section of philosophy by presenting the essentials of musicology, focusing on its intrinsic aspects, principles, and derivatives, without elaborating on numerical principles or arithmetic derivatives… Before delving into this science, we present a premise derived from experiential observations and sound intuition, blended with philosophical rulings and practical approaches. Sound, among sensory phenomena, possesses a unique sweetness as sound, pleasing or displeasing the sense not due to excessive intensity… but through its composition or evocation. The pleasure or discomfort it imparts pertains to the discerning faculty of the soul, not merely the auditory sense. Music is a mathematical science examining the states of melodies in terms of their harmony or dissonance and the intervals between them, to understand how to compose a tune. This definition encompasses two inquiries: the states of melodies (termed ‘composition’) and the intervals between them (termed ‘rhythm’). Each relies on principles from other sciences—numerical, natural, and occasionally geometrical.”

In simpler terms, Avicenna seeks to conclude the mathematical branch of philosophy by outlining musicology’s essentials, focusing on its inherent principles. He notes that sound, as a sensory phenomenon, has an intrinsic sweetness, pleasing or displeasing based on its composition or evocation. Musicology, as a mathematical discipline, studies melodic harmony and intervals, comprising composition (melodic states) and rhythm (temporal intervals), drawing on numerical, natural, and geometrical principles.

Sound: The Subject of Music

The subject of music is sound. Human sound is produced by the expulsion of breath through the vocal cords. A portion of these vocal cords is located in the larynx. Air moves from the lungs and strikes these cords, causing the muscles in the larynx and the vocal cords to vibrate. When air exits the lungs—akin to the tumultuous waves of the sea—and collides with these cords and the nasal passages, sound is formed.

We define sound as follows: Sound is any motion that generates a wavelength. This motion may occur in material or immaterial phenomena. Since no phenomenon in the universe is devoid of motion, it follows that no phenomenon is without sound. Every phenomenon produces sound, but perceiving the sound of a phenomenon requires auditory tools attuned to its specific wavelength and frequency, capable of registering its particular decibel level.

Definitions of sound found in various texts often fail to capture its essential meaning, instead incorporating material characteristics. A proper definition must be comprehensive and exclusive, applicable to all instances across all realms, irrespective of the specific attributes of those instances. Some define sound as: “Any tone emitted from the mouth without employing the articulatory organs.” According to this view, sound is not merely what is audible to the ear; rather, audibility is a passive attribute of sound. Human sound involves the vibratory excitation of the vocal cords in the larynx and throat. It should be noted that when sound is reflected, it is referred to as voice.

Contraction and Expansion of Sound

As sound arises from wave-inducing motion, it possesses the qualities of contraction (qabḍ) and expansion (bast). These qualities are contingent upon motion and thus permeate all phenomena and existence itself. The breath of the Merciful (nafas al-raḥmān) or the divine exhalation also exhibits contraction and expansion. In the material world, this manifests in electrical systems as the duality of phase and neutral wires. Sound, too, follows the system embedded in all phenomena, arising from the contraction and expansion of existence and its phenomena, producing specific wavelengths.

When applied to musicology, the contraction and expansion of phenomena are termed composition (ta’līf) and rhythm (īqā‘). The juxtaposition of two notes constitutes composition and contraction, while the binding and release of sound represent rhythm and expansion. Rhythm determines where sound is constrained or released, where it curves or breaks, where it becomes subtle or pronounced. Sound is constructed from strike (naqra) and rhythm. A strike refers to the articulation of a letter or the striking of a musical instrument, resulting from physical contact. In prosody, a strike equates to a letter, which is either dynamic or static, giving rise to causes (sabab), pegs (watad), and intervals (fāsila). In both prosody and music, the execution of a musical mode requires precise coordination of strikes.

As previously stated, all phenomena manifest through contraction and expansion. All levels of existence and its phenomena are the word of God and the sound of the Divine, as the universe appears through contraction and expansion, embodying the attributes of beauty (jamāl) and majesty (jalāl). The expansion of the Divine corresponds to beauty and its attributes, while contraction corresponds to majesty and its attributes. Everything in the universe is realised through proximity and distance, union and separation, and connection and disconnection.

Sound is contingent upon the motion of existence and its phenomena. The motion of phenomena is circular and cyclical. All motions—whether existential, amorous, aspirational, natural, or coerced—are oriented toward proximity or distance, union or separation. If motion is loosely defined as “the emergence of a thing from potentiality to actuality,” it implies a separation from potentiality and an arrival at actuality through contraction and expansion. Thus, all phenomena manifest through proximity and distance, connection and disconnection, union and separation. Since every motion generates sound, all phenomena possess sound, and all sound is ultimately the sound of the Divine.

The Narrative Function of Sound

Sound possesses the qualities of contraction and expansion, an apparent reality, and a capacity for signification. Signification is of three types: rational (e.g., Zaid’s voice from behind a wall indicating his presence), natural (e.g., a pale complexion signifying fear or anxiety), and conventional. Sound and voice encompass all three forms of signification.

For instance, a sound produced in the Shushtari mode conventionally signifies sorrow and melancholy, while one in the Isfahan mode conveys restlessness and tender charm. The voice of a singer or musician, along with the mode employed, reveals their emotional state. Not only does “the colour of the face betray the secrets within,” but melody and tune also unveil hidden emotions. Skilled physicians in the past could diagnose certain ailments or psychological disorders based on a patient’s voice. Sound reflects an individual’s inner states. For example, the breathing pattern of a healthy person can indicate whether they are under the influence of divine attributes of beauty, majesty, or perfection, or whether they are sinful or obedient. Similarly, one who sings in the Bayat Turk mode may be in a state of intoxication, while one who channels their voice in the Shur mode harbours inner turmoil. In Islamic law, sound is given significant importance, with emphasis on loudness, softness, measured recitation, and melodic chanting, the neglect of which may lead to sin.

All manifestations and phenomena in the universe exhibit contraction and expansion, and sound is no exception. For instance, individuals who experience contraction while awake may, upon falling asleep, transition to expansion as their muscles relax. In this state, the tissues in the nasal passages loosen, allowing sound to emerge freely, resulting in snoring. Unconsciously, each person’s snoring aligns with a musical mode. The same breath that produces snoring can, when awake and channelled through a flute, create harmonious sound.

Sound: A Natural Phenomenon with Heavenly Sweetness

Sound is a natural manifestation of all phenomena, and one cannot oppose what is inherent to the natural order; rather, natural truths must be accepted. However, accepting natural truths does not mean disregarding the boundaries set by Islamic law. Religious teachings safeguard and refine untamed nature, guiding it through disciplined instruction.

Avicenna, in the previously cited passage, eloquently reflects:

“Sound has its own sweetness, and if one does not partake of it, they will not find it elsewhere.”

Indeed, sound possesses a heavenly sweetness, and those who fail to appreciate it are deprived of a profound gift. God has instilled sound in human nature and all phenomena. The capacity to produce sound is an undeniable force inherent in the nature of all entities. Sound, melody, tone, rapture, extension, and trilling are attributes shared by all phenomena, with nature abounding in them. Among these, humans excel in singing, surpassing even the nightingale and canary in the beauty of their voice. As humans possess a comprehensive station, they can manifest the perfections of other phenomena. In contrast, other phenomena, lacking this comprehensive station, are limited to specific perfections and produce sound in a singular manner.

Frivolous, Spiritual, and Rational Sound

As noted, sound arises from motion, and since motion is inherent in existence and its phenomena, nothing is devoid of sound. Avicenna posits the soul (nafs) as the subject of sound, dividing it into real imaginative sound (termed spiritual sound) and virtual imaginative sound (termed frivolous sound). This classification appears in works like The Republic. Spiritual sound carries meaning, elevation, and sublimity, fostering spirituality, while frivolous sound leads to decline, lethargy, sin, and triviality.

This view lacks both scientific rigor and comprehensive coverage. It suggests that sound is merely an imaginative phenomenon, confined to the soul. However, the subject of sound and voice is breath, which emanates from the soul but transcends it. The soul and its pleasures are the initial and intermediate aims of sound, but sound’s scope extends further, capable of being rational. This is exemplified by the voices of Imam Hasan Mujtaba (peace be upon him) and Prophet David (peace be upon him), whose beauty captivated passersby, mountains, plains, and birds alike. The pinnacle of sound is rational-spiritual sound, which divine prophets and saints have sought to inspire, nourishing the soul and spirit of humanity. Discussing the pleasure of sound encompasses both worldly and divine sounds. God addressed Prophet Moses, saying: “Indeed, I am Allah” (Qur’an 28:30). May God grant the opportunity to explore these spiritual dimensions further. We will address the nourishing aspect of sound later.

It is rational sound that possesses sweetness, though Avicenna, a genius, described the human voice as a divine gift endowed with sweetness—an apt and expressive term. The five senses are divine endowments, and sound is a natural human faculty for creating melody, song, and recitation.

The ability to produce sound through vocal cords and the intricate auditory system exemplifies the miracle of creation. A slight misalignment of the vocal cords can render one voiceless or cause hoarseness due to inflammation, disrupting their natural contraction and expansion. Remedies such as starch or egg consumption can restore the cords’ natural state. Similarly, listening to beautiful, delightful melodies is natural for the human ear and mind. Deviating from this requires opposing nature, though the boundaries of nature must be understood through religious teachings. Human knowledge, limited as it is, requires guidance from the boundless knowledge of the final Prophet (peace be upon him), a revelation of God’s infinite wisdom.

The Potency of Sound Creation

Avicenna’s evocative statement highlights: “Among sensory phenomena, sound has a unique sweetness.” This sweetness is not exclusive to the listener; the singer, too, derives pleasure from their own voice. By engaging their vocal cords, the singer experiences joy in their ability to produce sound. Often, the singer finds greater delight than the listener, as they directly experience the act of creation through their breath. The vocal cords are designed to require breath, and the singer, by exhaling through them, first enjoys the act before transmitting that pleasure to others.

A beautiful voice signifies an individual’s strength and capability. One who can shape their voice harmoniously demonstrates mastery, showcasing their power to themselves and others. Such skill is not easily attained, requiring talent, mastery of phonetics, composition, articulation, and modulation. Not everyone can produce a sweet, melodious voice, as each voice differs significantly—some resonate, others do not; some are bass, others treble.

The Authority and Power of Sound

Avicenna further asserts, with great precision:

“The nature, which is a divine effect in bodies, ensures their preservation in their states with systematic order.”

This effect is the authority of sound. Nature has an impact, and sound, as a natural phenomenon, is not without influence. The capacity to produce effects is termed authority (ḥukm). For example, singing in the Mahur mode for six months may narrow the eye’s orbit due to the vibratory effect on the eyes. Singing in the Shur mode reduces harshness, while the Bayat mode induces laughter. Performing a Saqi-nama diminishes worldly attachment, and the Isfahan mode sustains youthfulness. Avicenna affirms that every aspect of nature has an authority, a divine effect, and sound is no exception.

Today, sound serves as a tool for promoting truth or falsehood. In Iran, eulogists (maddāḥān) amplify the voice of the Islamic system, while some singers abroad represent the opposition. Singers are the only artists who have sustained the opposition’s presence abroad, just as eulogists domestically wield influence, sometimes overshadowing the clergy or even challenging scholars. This underscores the immense power of sound. Both eulogists and singers can unleash their voices, but those lacking the courage or training to do so are deprived of this potency. The sweetness of sound captivates and enchants, a power unmatched by other mediums. Scholars must cultivate the ability to modulate their voices and communicate effectively with the public. Imam Khomeini’s influence stemmed not only from his courage, mysticism, and jurisprudence but also from his ability to forge sweet, compelling connections with people through speech. He could effortlessly move or amuse audiences, a trait rooted in his upbringing in a family free from rigid, dogmatic constraints, fostering intellectual and practical freedom.

The Melody of Sound

Sound is the vibrational quantity of air, a composed motion of breath (exhalation) or a musical instrument. Melody (laḥn) is a quality that may characterize sound. Melody is the natural or acquired rhythmic tone of sound, imparting either joy or sorrow. Sorrow or joy is a quality of melody, reflecting the singer’s inner state. Sorrow and joy originate in the heart, arising from longing, purity, love, or separation, but externally, they are conveyed through the musician’s or singer’s melody, which imbues the sound. It is the human heart that feels sorrow or joy, and the sound and melody it produces reflect that state.

The Sequence and Notes of Sound

The harmonious form that shapes sound, organizing it rhythmically, may stem from human effort or musical instruments. When applied to vocalization, this form is termed mode (dastgāh) or sequence (radīf); when produced by instruments, it is called tune (āhang) or note (nut). Musical instruments vary in their operation, producing sound either through breath or manual manipulation, meaning the structure of sound is conveyed either by exhalation or hand movements.

Thus, notes, modes, and sequences are forms of melody manifested through sound, eliciting joy or sorrow. Sorrow and joy are not types of modes but are conveyed through the forms known as modes and sequences.

A singer or musician must produce sound in perfect harmony with the mode, maintaining consistency throughout. For instance, if singing in the Mahur mode, they must adhere to it, lest they deviate into an errant melody (laḥn khārij).

The Science of Music

Musicology is the science of understanding modes and tunes, whether produced by instruments or through vocalization without them. Music and ghina should not be conflated, nor should they be assigned the same ruling. The subject of ghina is sound and voice, which may incorporate tune, rhythm, and melody. Music, however, pertains to instrumental sound produced by specific tools such as the tar, tambour, ney, mizmar, flute, violin, and others. Ghina is an attribute of sound, which we will explore in a dedicated chapter. Ghina is rapture-inducing, a quality we will discuss following our treatment of ghina. Rapture, in turn, generates delight. Sound can also be stimulating, and all these attributes will be elaborated in Chapter Two: Understanding Ghina and Related Matters.

To further this discussion, we cite a passage from Nafā’is al-Funūn fī ‘Arā’is al-‘Uyūn, a valuable eighth-century AH text, with slight modifications and additions. The author defines music as follows:

“Music is the study of the states of melodies. (Music equates to melody studies.) Melody studies entails understanding modes (e.g., Segah, Chargah, Panjgah, Zabol, Dashti, Bayat) and the various musical notes. Phonetics and melody studies clarify whether a performance is a song, chant, or hymn. Segah, Chargah, and Panjgah refer to the number of rhythms, whether three or more. Music is divided into theoretical (conceptual) and practical (applied) branches.”

The Term Music

It is said that music derives from Mūsā Aqās, where Mūsā refers to a mythological deity of beauty in ancient lore. Others suggest it stems from Mūsā and Qās, with Mūsā meaning air and Qās meaning rhythmic, thus denoting rhythmic air. Some argue that music is a simple, non-compound term meaning air, melody, tune, or trill. No historical evidence or authoritative source confirms these etymologies.

Persian dictionaries define song (āvāz) as: “sound, tone, melody, hymn, tune, and its branches, with each musical mode or sub-mode (e.g., Segah or Shur sub-modes) considered a song.” These dictionaries include even the sub-modes within the scope of song.

For singer (āvāz-khān), they note: “One who sings. A singer may also be called fame-seeking, as singing brings renown.”

For melody (āva), they list meanings such as song, tune, or related terms. A singer is defined as “one who sings well or masters the modes.” Persian dictionaries reiterate that singing well implies a pleasant voice, while mastery denotes proficiency in musical modes. Singing well differs from knowing how to sing. One who knows how to sing controls their voice, deploying it precisely, whereas one ignorant of modes lacks such control, resulting in an untamed voice.

These dictionaries treat hymn, melody, tune, and song synonymously, though we will demonstrate that distinct terms cannot share identical meanings.

The Scope of Music

Music, beyond linguistic debates, has sound as its subject. Sound can exist without words or poetry, as in percussion, perceived as waves. Meaning can be conveyed through waves or words, with words themselves being waves, though their articulations differ.

Music is also linked to the soul (nafs) and resonates with it. In lofty mystical stations and the celestial realm, its subject transcends the soul, reaching the heart, spirit, or higher faculties. In general terms, the heart and spirit are elevated stations of the soul. We have detailed the stages of the human soul in Sayr-e Sorkh.

The Pleasure of Sound

Here, we adopt a psychoanalytic approach to discuss harmonious and melodic sound, examining its external reality through empirical science and philosophy.

Sound possesses a unique capacity for sweetness, pleasure, and delight. Pleasure is an attribute of the soul, which finds joy in the harmony, melody, and rapture of sound. It is not the case that harmonious sound lacks pleasure. A healthy human does not view such enjoyment negatively, and even wild animals can be moved to dance by it. However, for a rational life guided by sound intellect and faith, one must avoid certain pleasing sounds, excessive use, or inappropriate contexts, purifying the soul from such indulgence. Guidance in this regard should be sought from a spiritual master versed in mystical stations, experienced in psychological matters, and qualified in jurisprudence. Harmonious sound is like lubricant for friction-prone mechanisms, easing the soul. It imparts such rapture, joy, sorrow, or vitality that, if indulged excessively, it weakens the soul’s restraining force and undermines willpower.

The power of sound lies in its ability to resonate deeply when shaped harmoniously. Narration through sound, particularly for humans with their comprehensive station, is pleasurable. A beautiful voice evoking a lovely face, vivid in the listener’s imagination, is delightful. As the saying goes, “Describing pleasure is half the pleasure,” though it is more accurate to say, “Describing pleasure is all the pleasure or beyond it.” In worldly delights, their description is sweeter than their attainment, whereas in otherworldly delights, attainment surpasses description.

When sound is shaped harmoniously within a musical mode, it generates a distinct pleasure, with the soul as the subject of this enjoyment. Pleasure from music is an instinctive, natural, and inevitable response of the soul. However, its permissibility varies, and its ruling must be sought from Islamic law to ensure each individual enjoys lawful, natural pleasure. While music and ghina offer soulful pleasure, not all pleasures are permissible, as some are sinful and carry the threat of divine punishment. Thus, illicit pleasures must be identified to enjoy those that are lawful.

When sound is imbued with melody within a specific musical mode, it becomes pleasurable, eliciting soulful delight. Anyone with intact perceptual and emotional faculties enjoys a beautiful voice. A believer may feel unease at a melodious sound if it involves sin, but this discomfort stems from its sinfulness, not its aesthetic harmony. One who suffers from beauty is not psychologically healthy. Thus, if a melodic song is not pleasing, the individual may have a psychological disorder or a rigid temperament.

Enjoying a beautiful voice is innate. God has endowed humans with a disposition to delight in harmonious sound, though its subject is the soul and its faculties. Just as every person has a God-given palate to distinguish good from bad food, the soul naturally enjoys beautiful sound and finds poor sound displeasing. This applies to ordinary individuals. Moderately pious believers, equipped with rationality and piety, do not prioritize soulful pleasures. The saints, with their divine will, find joy in God’s will, not in soul-driven matters.

Natural and Wild Sound

Sound can either be natural or wild. The criterion for the wildness of a sound is not the wildness of its origin, but rather the sound itself. For example, although a lion is a wild animal, its sound is not wild but natural! Any sound that is shaped by the nature of its nurturing environment is tame, even if its origin is wild. Conversely, any sound that does not originate from a nurturing environment is wild, even if its origin is tame. Humans, by nature, are generally tame beings; however, in many individuals, their sound is wild by nature. Therefore, natural sound is intrinsic to all creatures, while acquired sound is specific to humans.

Tame sound, which is innate and instinctual, does not require teaching or acquisition but changes according to the time and place. It is not fixed, but adaptable. For example, lions or tigers can be taught to produce a tame sound, and a lion can be trained to produce the sound of a cat, just as a cat can be taught to produce the sound of a lion. Similarly, human sound can be trained from wild to tame.

An individual who muddles musical notes and fails to articulate them correctly has not had proper training, and their natural wildness remains untamed. However, those nurtured by nature are tame because they have been cultivated through natural upbringing. Just as a louse is unnatural for a tree, and if the tree’s health were managed properly, the louse would not exist, similarly, a tree that does not bear fruit has not been properly pruned. These issues are not intrinsic to the tree, and with proper care and cultivation, such problems can be prevented.

Differences Between Human and Animal Sound and the Concept of “The Language of Birds”

While both human and animal sounds can be either wild or tame, the distinction between human and animal sound lies in the fact that animal sound is natural and simple, whereas human sound is composed, complex, and collective, owing to the social nature of humans. Animals can only produce a limited range of sounds, but humans are capable of a much broader range. Humans should not restrict themselves to paper and pens; they should engage with nature and, for example, observe how a mosquito or fly moves to discover many truths. Animals have rhythmic sounds and move beautifully; however, humans often become absorbed in writing and may speak of things beyond their comprehension, neglecting the present. Instead of seeking God in what is immediately around them, they discuss matters of which they have little understanding.

If animals are placed in a controlled environment, humans will discover that a fly has a harmonised structure and a beautiful, naturally harmonious sound, much like a domesticated creature.

However, a human who has experienced multiple homes, diverse cultures, and various teachers accumulates influences that result in a sound that is no longer natural. This is why many music teachers are hesitant to accept students who have already studied with others, as their sound has become ‘used’ or ‘refined’ improperly.

Another difference between human and animal sound is that human sound, being collective, is expansive, whereas animal sound is limited and fixed. Understanding the sound of animals, or “The Language of Birds,” comes from comprehending the notes they produce. We are told that the Prophet Solomon understood the seven fundamental sounds of animals, including what scale they used and the notes they expressed. The Queen of Ants speaks in her own language, and it is Solomon who understands her sound. This is similar to the concept of programming languages in computers, which are specific forms of logic.

Animal sounds can be extracted, understood, demonstrated, mimicked, and trained, while animals themselves cannot engage in verbal communication as humans can due to their lack of a collective social structure.

Sound Training

Natural sound has been universally granted, but the difference with humans lies in the need for proper training to prevent the voice from becoming wild. Although a human’s voice is natural, it is often wild by default, and it requires a system of control and education to become harmonious. In contrast, animals, having no choice in their expression, are naturally attuned to their essential nature. They are not wild because their nature guides them correctly. Human beings, however, require proper mentorship. Without guidance, a child’s voice may become untamed and corrupted.

Just as a field of thorns grows healthily in nature without the need for intervention, a garden or park, when lacking the right care, can result in unhealthy plants. Similarly, a well-maintained garden or properly cultivated flower thrives, just as a well-nurtured voice produces harmonious sound. Without the proper trainer, a voice can become as distorted as a poorly pruned tree or sickly flower.

Therefore, human sound can either be wild or tame. Tame sound is that which is in harmony with nature. Wild sound must be trained to be harmonious under the guidance of an expert.

The Influence of Mother and Trainer on Sound

Today, all are educated, and illiteracy is being eradicated by government policy. In contrast to the past, when many people remained uneducated, now sound also requires education, beginning within the family under the mother’s guidance and continuing in educational environments. Singers with pleasant voices are often found in rural areas more than in urban ones because rural environments are more open, and the people are freer to express their natural sound.

In the past, child mortality was high, often due to poor healthcare and lack of necessary facilities. However, today such issues are preventable. It is incorrect to think that God intended for many children to die, or for them to remain uneducated, or for their natural talents to remain untapped. God has granted humanity the power to master nature, and this extends to sound as well. Many people struggle to produce beautiful sound due to improper training within the family environment, not because of divine will.

The Impact of Clean Air on Sound

In addition to proper breathing, clean air is crucial for developing a rich voice. Clean air is particularly important for those engaged in spiritual or mystical practices. Polluted air can cloud the mind and dry up the source of thought. For spiritual progress, it is important to live in natural surroundings under the open sky and avoid the confined air beneath roofs. Mystics, like beautiful brides, should not be reclusive or obsessed with rituals but should embody a clear, vibrant spiritual presence. Similarly, scholars and believers should lead such a life.

For a suitable voice, correct breathing is essential. If a person does not practice proper breathing techniques with appropriate exercises, their voice will not develop harmoniously. Regular exercise helps open the lungs, expel waste, and refine the voice.

We spoke of sound, resonance, and the quest for freedom and liberty. Sound must possess flexibility and softness, much like the bodies of gymnasts, which are extremely pliable and function like springs. In contrast, someone with a stiff body, when they bend, their body creaks like a dry stick, lacking flexibility and prone to breakage. Similarly, a voice that lacks flexibility is like a rigid body, incapable of turning, swaying, or moving up and down. This rigidity and flexibility in sound are described as “high” and “low” pitches. A low and thick voice, which lacks flexibility, is suitable for mourning and similar contexts. Low voices are typically abdominal, while high-pitched voices are heady, seemingly emanating from within the head. A person with a high-pitched voice can easily sing in multiple languages like Turkish, Persian, and Arabic. On the other hand, someone with a low voice lacks the flexibility to sing in diverse modes like Bayat-Turk or Hijaz. Moreover, a person with a high-pitched voice can freely access all ranges of their vocal ability, unlike someone with a low voice, whose range is limited.

The Pitch and Timbre of Sound

Pitch and timbre are of significant importance in music and singing. A singer must know the range of their voice (how many octaves they can sing) and the characteristics of the musical modes they perform. They need to understand how their voice’s pitch aligns with the mode’s timbre and what they can execute most effectively.

Understanding these elements is vast and complex. The timbre of a voice determines whether it is deep or sharp. For instance, the Isfahan or Homayoun modes have softer timbres, while Iraq has a significantly sharper tone, and Rast Panjgah has an even sharper timbre than Iraq. Each mode has its own distinct tonal quality that must be carefully considered.

The timbre of animal sounds also varies, just as their nature differs. Some animals, like cows, have deep voices, while others, like dogs, have higher-pitched sounds, such as when they bark. Animals that live in open and wild environments, such as roosters, nightingales, and canaries, tend to have richer sounds. For example, a rooster will continuously crow if kept in a confined space, and a canary will chirp incessantly if placed in darkness, whereas a hen does not exhibit the same behavior.

The Roughness of Sound

Another characteristic of sound is that it can sometimes be clear and sometimes have a rough, gravelly quality, similar to a radio signal that can be either clear or filled with static. When the frequency of sound increases and becomes coarse, the voice acquires a rough texture. This roughness is not easily noticed under normal conditions, but someone with a keen understanding of acoustics can detect the frequency and the texture of the sound, including its roughness.

Conditions Affecting Music

Just as sounds vary, so does music. Some types of music are harsh and unpleasant to some listeners, while others are enjoyable. Music has both form and content. The form refers to the arrangement, composition, and rhythm, while the content is the melody and atmosphere conveyed by the music. Both form and content can vary, and the perception of music is subjective, varying across individuals.

Just as sound and voice have different qualities, so too does listening. A person can be in a happy or sad mood, and each of these moods affects their perception of sound. Sometimes, the sound aligns with the mood and brings contentment, while at other times, it may have the opposite effect. Even a pleasant sound can become disturbing if it is too loud. The loudness or softness of sound is relative, influenced by the individual and the environment. For example, a person speaking a bit louder than usual in a small room may find their voice annoying due to poor sound reflection, whereas the same person shouting in the open will not disturb anyone because the sound waves have space to dissipate. Some people have sharp hearing and can detect faint sounds from a distance, so the perception of sound intensity in contexts such as prayer also depends on the individual.

Music: A Systematic and Harmonious Science of Sound

So far, we have discussed the subject of music, which is sound. The study of music aims to bring order, harmony, and aesthetic structure to sound. This effort takes place in both theoretical and practical forms. Theoretical music involves understanding the subject, principles, and scientific issues of music, while practical music involves applying the theoretical knowledge in performance. It is possible for someone to acquire theoretical knowledge of music without being able to apply it practically. A musician who wants to learn to play the accordion or the ney (flute) cannot make progress without actually playing the instrument. Likewise, a singer wishing to learn specific modes like Chahargah, Segah, Shushtari, Hijaz, or Abuata must practice singing them to truly learn.

Each musical mode has its own set of rules that must be distinguished in practice. Music is not a purely intellectual or theoretical science; it has practical applications. Music is the art of human sound and the skill of the fingers. One becomes a musician by learning to play or sing. The sound and melody that emerge from the voice are the practical applications of theoretical musical knowledge. Thus, theory and practice are intertwined in music. A person does not become a musician after a single practice session; rather, they must repeat exercises, rise and fall in pitch, and explore different dynamics until they master a mode.

Someone who does not understand music or cannot practically apply it will produce an unnatural sound (wild and crude). In contrast, someone who possesses such skills seems to control their voice, shaping it as they wish. We spent several years, even in the summer, drinking only warm water, as cold water would stimulate the vocal cords, making it difficult to control them when singing.

Relationship Between Melody and Environment

Just as an individual’s mood significantly influences what they hear, sound also has an effect. A sound can transport a person to a place where it is inappropriate, or it can take them away from a place where they belong. This suggests that suitability applies to melody, not the environment. Melody in song and music is both effective and educational, influencing not only the listener but also the sound, the melody, and the mood. This influence creates either a joyful or sorrowful state in the person. Music must be suited to the context of the time and place. For instance, a joyful song is appropriate for a time of happiness, and a sorrowful song is suitable for a time of grief. Even the time of day and the temperature can affect how a song is performed. The context must be considered in terms of both time and place, as well as the musical mode, to ensure full appropriateness. Some people have the ability to sing a sorrowful song even during a joyful occasion without creating any conflict. However, this miraculous skill is rarely used, and unfortunately, many Muslims are unaware of it.

The Meaning and Essence of Musical Sound

Music concerns itself with sound and aims to give it rhythm and harmony. It is both the science of shaping sound and the carrier of meaning, which itself contains life and spirit. The form of sound is shaped, and its content is its soul and essence. Music is not merely a wave or a melodic voice; it is not just a flag or a wave of air that rises, but it also contains truth, spirit, content, and meaning, capable of stirring and motivating humans. Music, if it were only concerned with the harmony of sound without meaning, would simply bring pleasure, excitement, or arousal in the listener.

Some argue that music is a formal and structural phenomenon without substance, claiming that if music had substance and meaning like a rose or water, it would have the same effect on all people. However, Eastern music does not evoke the same reaction in Westerners, nor does it delight both humans and animals the same way water does. Water brings joy to all animals, whether they live in Australia, Iran’s Lut Desert, the Alps, or the icy polar regions. The same is not true for music. Even if music possesses essence and meaning, it does not have the same effect on everyone. Music has form and content, and it conveys specific meanings.

When we say that music has a soul, we do not mean that it has a soul like a human’s or an angel’s. Every entity has its own soul, just as every soul requires a corresponding body. Music’s form is its manifestation, and its soul is the sound it produces. Not all people find this sound equally pleasant; just as some prefer sweet tastes and others prefer sour, so too do individuals have different preferences for music.

The Afshari Mode

The Afshari mode is a melancholic one, where the language of the sorrowful heart is expressed. It is rarely used to evoke happiness or joy. This mode has a particular dignity and serenity in its expression of emotions. Many Persian poems are fittingly set to this mode. The Afshari mode contains numerous beautiful sections and has a distinct precision.

After its introduction, the Afshari mode moves into the Iraq section, reaching a peak with the Rahav or Nava themes, before returning to the introduction with a deep, resonant tone.

The simple or compound rendition of this mode is common. In its compound form, there is a freedom of taste, creativity, and mastery over the sub-sections.

Afshari is one of the essential modes used in religious or ceremonial contexts, such as during sermons, recitations of religious texts, prayers, and the call to prayer. The recommendation (وَرَتِّلِ الْقُرْآنَ تَرْتِیلا) is integral to its understanding. The foundation of the Afshari mode is built upon Iraq and the Ras, akin to the modes of Sehgah and Chahargah.

The Seh-gah Mode

The Seh-gah mode is one of love and joy, creating happiness with its subtle elegance and delicacy.

This mode is heavy and possesses a balanced, equal range of high and low notes. Its different expressions are uniquely balanced in a natural harmony. Among the modes, Seh-gah enjoys significant solidity and widespread recognition.

Following its introduction, Seh-gah transitions through mournful and reversed themes, reaching a deep climax, then returning to its original tones. Seh-gah has unique sub-sections that add to its grandeur.

The Dashti Mode

The Dashti mode is one that generates only sorrow and grief, burning the heart of a lover with its painful intensity; yet, paradoxically, it serves as a soothing balm for the soul. Only specific types of poetry fit this mode, unlike the Seh-gah, which accommodates a broader range of works.

Dashti begins with the Rajah theme, then moves into the ‘lovers’ section, escalating to a passionate peak and descending back to the introduction. Its sub-sections are particularly poignant, echoing themes of longing, despair, and separation.

The Esfahan Mode

Esfahan is a refined mode, characterized by graceful ornamentation, with a soft charm and an inherently seductive quality, often described as one that captivates hearts and leads to ruin.

It begins with the introduction leading into Rajah, climaxing in the theme of lovers, and descending back to the introduction. The “Saqi Nameh,” a lament of the weary lover, stands as an independent section in Esfahan, holding artistic integrity and, much like the “Masnavi,” presenting itself as a complete expression. Many love poems and prayers are often performed within the Esfahan mode, especially in the Saqi Nameh section.

The Abou Ata Mode

The Abou Ata mode is full of intensity and joy, evoking images of gardens, fields, and deserts. This mode elicits a sense of joy and exultation, delighting those who hear it, whether they are of the land or sea. It is full of vibrant energy, akin to the playful and joyous sounds of a flute, and requires a strong, full voice.

It begins with an introduction, moves into Hijaz, combining with Kobra for a somber tone, then returns to the introduction. The most beautiful section in this mode is “Zabbi,” which holds particular independence, especially in the six-eighth rhythm.

The Homayoun Mode

The Homayoun mode is delicate and sweet, evoking the tranquility of the dawn. It is a mode that resonates deeply with the soul of a lover and mystic. After the introduction, it moves into the Chikavak section, rising to a passionate peak in the Bidad section, before shaping itself with themes of Layli, Majnun, and Bekhtyari, eventually returning to the introduction.

The Shushtari Mode

Shushtari is a sorrowful mode, which deeply touches the soul of a grieving heart and is fitting for mystic prayers.

It begins with the introduction, moves into the Bidad and Rajah themes, then rises, with the Nahavandi section being particularly suitable for it. After transitioning through the sub-sections, it returns to its original theme, calming the spirit.

The Shour Mode

The Shour mode is the heaviest and most beautiful of all modes, intoxicating in its energy and spiritually motivating. It is associated with mysticism and brings a particular comfort to the soul during the early morning hours.

Shour moves from its introduction into Shahnaz, incorporates elements from the Afshari mode, and draws from the Shahrivar and Shiraz themes, using the Iraqi and Rahav themes for its fullest expression.

The Masnavi Seh-gah Mode or Pahlavi

The Pahlavi, or Masnavi Seh-gah, is an independent section of the Seh-gah mode and occupies a separate category. Unlike the Masnavi Bayat-Turk, it differs not only in charm but also in rhythm, being more extended than the Bayat-Turk version.

The Chahargah Mode

Chahargah is an independent and delightful mode used for joy and celebration. It is robust, with a refreshing vitality, evoking happiness and enthusiasm, especially in festive gatherings.

Starting with the introduction, Chahargah moves into Zabol, peaking in the opposing direction, then returning to its origin. The best sections within this mode are the “Chavoshi” and “Zorkhaneh” rhythms, both of which are particularly enlivening for national and religious gatherings.

The Mahur Mode

Mahur is a powerful yet sweet mode, characterized by its vibrant beauty, evoking images of flourishing gardens and fields.

It begins with the introduction, transitions into Hesar, then returns to the introduction. Combining Mahur with Afshari and Seh-gah requires particular expertise.

The Rast-Panjgah Mode

Rast-Panjgah is a mode of exuberance and joy, similar to Chahargah, and is particularly effective for creating a spirited atmosphere.

It begins with the Hesar introduction, follows with the Afshari and Rahav sections, then returns to the introduction. This mode is highly adaptable and lends itself well to various musical combinations.

The Concept of “Tarjib-Reading”

Sometimes a performer utilizes different forms of sound within their voice. This skill is known as “tarjib-reading” or combining various elements. A performer may merge one mode with another or one section with another, creating a new composite sound.

The arrangement of these modes is based on natural inclination, taste, and a refined understanding of musical structure. The way the Afshari transitions to Iraq, or the Seh-gah employs a reversal and mourning tone, is a fascinating process that involves deep understanding and mastery.

The structure of these modes and their sub-sections is intricate, where each mode adheres to particular natural, aesthetic, and mathematical rules. Some sub-sections, such as “Lovers” and “Rajah,” are common across many modes, bearing significant general relevance and distinct positioning within each.

The Musical Sound of the Qur’an

The Holy Qur’an, being the only complete divine scripture, encompasses within itself various unique musical modalities. These musical structures are inherent to this celestial text. When a music expert reflects upon the verses of the Qur’an, they will discern that the entire composition is imbued with melody and rhythm, evoking the sensation of a musical masterpiece. The Arabs, renowned for their appreciation of eloquent poetry, considered themselves the sole bearers of such linguistic excellence. Hence, when they encountered the Qur’an, they found it to be more eloquent than their finest poetry, with its musical modes being entirely unfamiliar to them.

Anyone with knowledge of acoustics will recognise that the sound and voice of the Qur’an possess a distinctive quality, wherein language itself does not play a prominent role. For instance, the Qur’an’s musicality is not confined to the Arabic language alone. The language of the Qur’an transcends this, resonating with the language of nature, a language so universal that even animals are attuned to it. To truly comprehend the melodic essence of the Qur’an, one does not necessarily need to understand Arabic. Rather, an individual with an understanding of acoustics and the natural sounds of the world can grasp the essence of what the Qur’an conveys, even without knowledge of Arabic or Persian.

Through the recognition of various musical modes and vocal styles, one can appreciate how God revealed the Qur’an to the Angel Gabriel and how Gabriel, in turn, received it. The sound of revelation, as well as the voice of God, remains a profound mystery. Whether divine revelation is material or immaterial is a question that remains unsolved, and it is a mystery that humanity, and even the prophets, have yet to fully comprehend. The voice the prophets heard was a means to purify their hearts and to deepen their love for God.

Imam Sajjad (the seventh Imam) recited the Qur’an in such a sublime manner that listeners would sometimes faint upon hearing it. Even water carriers, while carrying their burdens under the oppressive heat, would lose their senses when they heard his divine, celestial voice. The impact of the beautiful voices of the Imams, being pure and untainted, captivated the hearts of their listeners. The manifestation of divine light through their words and countenances was palpable. These truths need no further investigation, for anyone who has caught even a fleeting glimpse of the divine authority will recognise it instinctively.

Had the Qur’an, the supplications of Imam Ali (peace be upon him), the prayers of Imam Sajjad (peace be upon him), and the prayers of Lady Fatimah (peace be upon her) been recited with a beautiful voice and sound, the heavens would have parted and hearts would have been captured. Just as listeners would faint upon hearing the voices of these holy figures, understanding and mastering the art of vocalisation is required to achieve such an effect. The words of supplications, such as in Sahifa Sajjadiya (The Prayer Book of Imam Sajjad), serve as powerful tools to dismantle degenerate systems. Yet, how many truly appreciate their value and benefit from their profound depths?

Some verses of the Qur’an possess a tone of sorrow, while others convey joy. Many verses of the Qur’an hold the capacity to heal spiritual and psychological wounds. However, regrettably, the Qur’an is often neglected by the Muslim community, left abandoned and unappreciated.

Anyone with a beautiful voice who recites the Qur’an must understand musical modalities, so that when they encounter a verse of punishment, it is not recited joyfully, and when they encounter a joyful verse, it is not recited in a manner befitting a verse of punishment. For instance, a verse that speaks of God’s mercy should not be recited in the same tone as a verse that states: “Say: ‘Be gone in it, and do not speak to Me.'” (Qur’an 23:108). This necessitates that those with musical expertise in their voices be familiar with the Qur’an’s musical modes, ensuring that the recitation corresponds with the mood of each verse. The words must be articulated in a manner consistent with the speaker, so that the listener understands the source of the voice — whether it belongs to a child, an adult, or to God Himself.

In the recitation of the Qur’an, it must be noted that these are the words of God, and thus should be read with tenderness, purity, compassion, and mercy. To achieve this, the recitation should follow the intonation of the Arabic language, adopting its natural style and appropriate musical modes. Only in this manner can one experience the spiritual sustenance that the Qur’an offers.

The Qur’an is, indeed, a book of spiritual music. However, the music within the Qur’an remains to be discovered. Much like caricatures, paintings, or photographs, music is a universal language. Even someone who does not know Arabic can benefit from the musicality of the Qur’an. The Qur’an itself declares: “So recite what is easy of the Qur’an.” (Qur’an 73:20). This verse indicates that recitation itself leads to guidance.

The question is often posed: “Why should we read the Qur’an when we do not understand its meanings?” In fact, the very recitation of the Qur’an possesses a unique melody, and each melody carries its own effect on the body, soul, and psyche. Each individual should recite the Qur’an regularly. The pursuit of its meanings and interpretations is a separate matter and cannot replace the act of recitation. Anyone who does not recite the Qur’an daily, who does not hear its comforting melodies with their ears, hearts, and eyes, is, in essence, devoid of spiritual purity and understanding.

The recitation of the Qur’an has its own distinctive music. It is not contingent upon a specific language such as Turkish, Arabic, or Persian; rather, anyone, regardless of their nationality or linguistic background, can feel the effect of the Qur’an through its recitation.

The Qur’an speaks of the magnificence of the tongue and lips, stating: “And [We] have created for him a tongue and two lips.” (Qur’an 90:9). Indeed, it is through sound that one can attract attention and communicate one’s essence to others. Each individual is alive through their voice and is recognised by others through it.

The Musical Mode of Du’a Kumayl

When Imam Ali (peace be upon him) meets Kumayl, he teaches him the supplication known as Du’a Kumayl, a supplication that has a specific musical mode associated with it. If this supplication is recited in its proper mode, it has the power to mesmerise and captivate listeners. Regrettably, many contemporary reciters of Du’a Kumayl fail to recite it in its authentic mode, often compensating with additional poetry or lamentations in an attempt to evoke tears. However, if recited in its original musical style, no additional lamentations or poetry are necessary, for the emotional depth of the sound itself is sufficient to move the listener.

The Musical Mode of the Mystic Supplications

Imam Sajjad (peace be upon him) employs specific musical modes in his mystic prayers. Had he not endured forty years of spiritual purification following the tragedy of Karbala, he would not have been able to withstand the immense grief and suffering he experienced. These enduring trials were the result of the divine nourishment found in Sahifa Sajjadiya, which reflects both wisdom and divine love.

While we cannot precisely know how Imam Sajjad (peace be upon him) recited these prayers, the truth remains that such deep spirituality and purity of sound were integral to the spiritual nourishment of the prophets and saints. This nourishment, whose substance was divine sound and whose content was divine knowledge and perfection, was not accessible to all, but only to those with profound spiritual insight.

It is entirely acceptable for an individual to recite verses invoking God and referencing Heaven and Hell in a manner that resonates with the celestial realm. This can deeply stir the heart and spirit, lifting the individual away from worldly preoccupations and drawing them toward spiritual engagement.

The Musical Mode of the Prayer for the Awaited Imam (Du’a al-Faraj)

All Qur’anic verses and supplications possess their own rhythm and specific musical modes. The well-known supplication for the Imam of the Age, Du’a al-Faraj, begins: “O Allah, be for Your Wali, the Hujjat ibn al-Hasan, prayers upon him and his forefathers, in this hour and in every hour, a protector, a guide, a helper, a leader, and an eye, until he settles in Your land…” (Du’a al-Faraj). This prayer carries profound rhythmic, vocal, and tonal qualities. If recited for those disbelievers, it will still affect them.

The Music of the Adhan

One of the most emphasised and highly recommended practices in Islam is the Adhan (call to prayer). The Adhan holds such significance that, according to religious scholars, if someone enters into prayer without hearing the Adhan, they must interrupt their prayer to listen to it. The Adhan is entirely uplifting and possesses no descending or diminishing aspects. Its elevated nature expands the soul, guiding the listener to a state of spiritual ascent.

In prayer, one must rise before they descend, just as the Adhan guides one to ascend before the act of bowing and prostration. This concept of spiritual ascent and descent aligns with the philosophy of sound.

If an individual does not spiritually ascend in their prayer, they will remain tethered to the mundane, their mind consumed by worldly distractions. According to the teachings of the Shari’ah, a prayer that does not begin with an ascent (through the Adhan) is incomplete. Thus, recognising the spiritual significance of the Adhan is essential to the full experience of prayer.

The Music of Prayer

Prayer has its own melody. The necessity of a tone is even present in recitation. For example, the phrase “ولا الضالين” (and those who are misguided), with its elongation, creates a musical system and brings forth a distinct note that facilitates the flourishing of melody. The verse “ولا الضآلين” includes all four types of vocal modes. Surah Al-Fatiha is abundant with various vocal modes, and therefore, it is the most challenging part of the prayer. God commands, “And recite the Qur’an with measured recitation” (Quran, 73:4) to ensure the optimal use of sound and voice, indicating that sound and voice are not only to be employed for sinful or frivolous purposes. This is akin to the well-known analogy that the door of the mosque is never closed due to the presence of one person who does not pray.

Sound and voice nourish the soul. Thus, a prayer recited without voice, rhythm, or melody tarnishes the heart, distancing it from spiritual sustenance, and the lack of such a recitation can be mentally distressing. A prayer that resembles the murmurings of the Jews while reading the Torah does not reflect the sincere faith of Muslims. The guidance to recite with rhythm is crucial for fulfilling this important task. Observing the rhythm in prayer brings tranquility to the individual and helps them focus on the Divine, directing their heart towards the Beloved and seeking the presence of the Divine. Conversely, someone who treats prayer merely as a task to escape and rushes through its actions—preferring quick recitations of bowing and prostration over the standing and sitting—cannot hope to experience a deep connection with the Divine or pray in a melodic, loving manner, seeking the face of the Beloved.

Prayer contains music and rhythm. Even if someone does not understand the meaning of prayer, by reciting it properly, they can still perceive the musical effect of prayer. When prayer is recited correctly, it balances and harmonizes the digestive system, much like eating a pomegranate that purifies the blood; similarly, prayer purifies the temperament, blood, nerves, spirit, and soul. Reciting prayer with calmness is highly effective for alleviating nervous tension. Just as regulating the electricity and carburetor of a car adjusts its engine to prevent it from emitting smoke, properly reciting prayer helps prevent internal conflict, making the individual not overly critical of themselves. It is narrated: “Fast and you will find health” (Quran), a concept not limited to fasting alone, as prayer too brings health. Anyone who recites the Qur’an and prayers with rhythm and attention, as instructed in “And recite the Qur’an with measured recitation” (Quran, 73:4), will maintain good health and will never suffer from tension, stiffness, or nervous exhaustion. However, someone who does not recite the prayer rhythmically and attentively will miss out on some of its musical benefits. The Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) said: “Pray as you have seen me pray” (Bukhari); meaning, recite the prayer with the same melody, tone, and language that I used, and do not pray in any language other than the language of the Qur’an, so that you may benefit from its linguistic effects. This is because prayer and the Qur’an are effective only when recited in their proper melody and tone, even if their meaning is not fully understood. The Qur’an is a source of wisdom, and it leaves its impact regardless of comprehension. Neglecting the voice and sound and not using them for spiritual purposes can lead to confusion and nervous weakness.

Had the worshippers not viewed the prayer as an obligatory task but had instead preserved its rhythm and melody, they would have chosen an imam for the congregational prayer who would lengthen the prayer slightly. However, in today’s world, this spiritual atmosphere is less frequent, and fewer people are seen attending such prayers.

Leading a congregational prayer is far more difficult than giving a lecture or delivering a sermon. The person who intends to lead a congregational prayer must be able to move in harmony with the people, guiding them in their spiritual journey, and with this loving melody, travel to the heights of spiritual ascension.

If a person participates in congregational prayer but feels no movement within themselves or attends a lesson without gaining anything spiritually, they should recognize that they have gone astray and must find a different imam or teacher, lowering their head at a different threshold.

Today, congregational prayers are considered of lesser importance in our society, and those who finish this vast, divine banquet more quickly are given greater respect, often depriving the people of its benefits.

The Music and Battle Chants of Early Islam

Battle chants are military melodies that Islam also paid significant attention to and made use of. Often, these chants played a crucial role in boosting the morale of soldiers and creating victory while weakening the enemy’s resolve. During the early Islamic battles, the idolaters would chant: “A’lu Hubbāl, A’lu Hubbāl” and the Muslims would respond: “Allāhu A’la wa Ajall”, with both rhymes forming a 16-note musical structure. The idolaters would say: “Indeed, we have al-‘Uzzā, and you have no al-‘Uzzā” and the Muslims would reply: “Allah is our protector and you have no protector”, each phrase having 12 notes. The idolaters placed their name before their idol, emphasizing their strength and independence, while the Muslims, following the Qur’an, placed God’s name first in response.

This contrast between the battle chants reflects the difference in culture between disbelief and Islam. The idolaters, who revered their idols, still placed themselves before their idols, but the Muslims always placed God first and held Him in the highest regard. This battle chant is rooted in the Qur’an, which says: “That is because Allah is the protector of those who believe, and the disbelievers have no protector” (Quran, 47:11). The early believers, who were nurtured by a Prophet like Muhammad (PBUH) and spiritually trained under the guidance of the Qur’an, spoke beautifully and always placed the name of their protector at the forefront.

These battle chants, which had different melodies, were rooted in specific musical systems, and the use of these systems was intentional and precise.

The Rational and Divine Music of Sound

We previously discussed rational sounds. The sound and voice of reason bring an individual closer to the Divine. The prophets and saints, in their supplications, prayers, and recitations of the Qur’an, have sought the highest state of sound, which we consider to be the mystical sound of the Divine. We believe that the saints did not have the opportunity to reveal this highest state, nor did they find suitable disciples to teach it. They neither had the time nor the circumstances to do so. One cannot believe that Islam disregarded the rational identity of music, which can be described and understood. Rather, we should acknowledge that the divine saints simply did not have the opportunity to uncover these truths and mysteries of existence.

Every action that creates sound is part of a system with its own notes. Even the sound of footsteps while walking follows a specific musical system. Every sound, every touch, and every vibration has its own melody and rhythm. Whether the sound is created vocally or through an instrument, it always carries a musical structure. Even a stone falling into a well produces a sound with its own rhythm. The chirping of a sparrow or the cawing of a crow also contains a unique musical note. Philosophers have discovered some of these sounds, notes, and musical systems, but many scholars, influenced by political systems and other reasons, have declared them forbidden, closing the path of discovery for music.

Natural sounds, such as the calls of animals or the rustling of trees, all contain their own melodies. The Qur’an itself emphasizes this when it says: “And to Allah prostrates whatever is in the heavens and whatever is on the earth, of creatures” (Quran, 16:49) and “Whatever is in the heavens and the earth glorifies Allah” (Quran, 57:1). Every phenomenon in the universe has its own voice, its own sound, and its own melody. No two creatures can produce the same sound, and no imitation can truly capture another’s sound. Each sound is unique to the creature or phenomenon it comes from.

The Logic of Sound in Phenomena

The science of acoustics allows one to understand the language of animals or even all phenomena. To understand the language of animals, one must first comprehend the musical system of their sounds. Just as we mentioned, sound permeates the entire universe. If the sound system of any phenomenon is understood, one could, like the Prophet Solomon, understand the language of all phenomena. While this is difficult, it is possible through great effort and dedication.

In religious sciences, these discussions can only be explored deeply if scholars cease to be satisfied with superficial answers and instead seek to uncover deeper truths. By delving into the study of the music of the Divine, they could open new paths for understanding.

The Destruction of Sound

Sound and voice are undeniable truths that nourish the spirit and soul, just as other senses do. However, the art of utilizing these for spiritual nourishment requires a deep understanding of their systems and their effects on the human soul. Sadly, the doors to this knowledge have been closed for years, while only the physical nourishment through material means has been left open. As the poet says: “Man becomes nourished through the ears, while cows and donkeys are nourished through the mouth.”

When individuals fail to open their spiritual senses, they regress, focusing only on physical sustenance. They eat too much, ignoring the spiritual food that sound can provide.

The Role of Musical Instruments in Mystical Path (Suluk)

The topic of discussion in this section is the mystic and seeker on the divine path, not ordinary individuals. The discussion here is that the mystic and seeker require music and that, in order to prescribe music for seekers, one must understand the different musical modes (dastgahs). Prescribing music for certain seekers—specifically at particular stages of their mystical journey—does not mean it is permissible for everyone. Music may be permissible for one seeker and objectionable for another; similarly, certain sounds and voices may be suitable for one seeker and detrimental to another. For instance, the Maḥoor mode is recommended for some seekers for a specific period of time, but this is not to say that all types of music are permissible for all seekers at any stage, let alone for all ordinary people. A seeker who wishes to progress and rise must find their own footing, and music becomes a tool for traversing the path. However, this does not mean that everyone who moves on a smooth surface should carry this tool with them and use it.

In mysticism, music, singing (ghina), and listening to spiritual sounds (Sama), which refers to hearing metaphysical and transcendent sounds, are considered as “helpers” and “assistants” on the path. A seeker who learns the stages of love in the presence of a true teacher will encounter various hardships, the least of which is material poverty and other kinds of difficulties. If the seeker enters into spiritual struggles (awadiyyah), they will experience the most intense states. A seeker, naturally inclined towards the path, may become mentally exhausted due to immense pressures and may sometimes feel unable to continue or wish to avoid such experiences. In such cases, as advised by the spiritual master, the seeker is recommended to listen to music and singing to the extent necessary. The type of music prescribed is determined by the spiritual master, taking into account the seeker’s ultimate goal. It is important to note that, in relation to singing, there is a difference between the end goal and the actor (the singer), and this difference arises from the preparatory nature of music and singing. If a person is overwhelmed by lust and sin, listening to music may lead them further into sin, whereas for someone engaged in worship, music can serve as an aid to their devotion. Music, in this sense, is preparatory and must be considered in relation to the person’s path. Only then can permissible music in a specific mode be prescribed for a seeker, and even then, only according to their level and position.

For the seeker, music must have a preparatory role, and this role differs according to the stages and positions in the journey. At one stage, the seeker is advised to listen to music and singing in a particular mode; at another, they are prohibited from it, and another mode is recommended. In some cases, they are altogether advised against any form of music.

Sama and Dance

In the stages and stations of the mystical journey, the practice of “Sama” is mentioned, and it is considered one of the stages. This is discussed in the book Mahal al-Sairin. In the third volume of my commentary on this book, titled The Red Journey, I have elaborated extensively on the “stage of Sama”. Sama, in essence, is a spiritual reality that is reflected in the Sahifah Sajadiyyah. The meaning of Sama refers to hearing divine, metaphysical inspiration in the form of sound and voice, not the type of Sama traditionally associated with some Sufis which involves dancing and physical movement.

Types of Spiritual Attainment

It has been stated that singing and music are “assistants” and “helpers” in leading the seeker to higher spiritual states. The means of reaching higher states (Musil) is twofold: it can be either psychological and imaginative or spiritual. The imaginative means have a symbolic nature, while the spiritual means are abstract, divine, and linked to God. The sounds of revelation, inspiration, and visions fall under the spiritual category. Since the mystics who are attracted to the divine realm are of two types—those who seek through discipline (riyazi) and those who are divinely favoured (muḥabbat)—it must be said that music serves primarily those who are on the path of seeking, and it is a means of psychological and imaginative connection for the beginner and intermediate seeker. However, the divine saints and beloved ones of God, the awliya (friends of God), do not require such means. The beloved ones do not rely on musical modes, rhythms, or tunes to inspire their ascent; their spiritual nourishment comes from divine tunes of inspiration, visions, and revelations. Music, singing, and Sama are for those who need external assistance in their spiritual journey; however, those who descend from a higher state do not need such aids. They are, in every condition, already dancing in the presence of God, with no one leading them.

The beloved ones, who have been spiritually nurtured since before their creation, do not require such external stimuli. They have been spiritually nourished and directed even before birth. They do not need to be encouraged by the “whistles” of childhood to walk; they move from an entirely different plane. These tools are for those who wish to ascend from a lower state. These seekers require external stimulation, such as music or rhythm, to awaken their spiritual energy. However, the beloved ones, whose essence is attuned to the divine, are intoxicated by divine revelation and do not require any material form of assistance.

In this realm, it is common to consider figures like Rumi and Hafiz as spiritual giants, yet they are still considered to be seekers on the mystical path, rather than perfected saints. Qunawi, for example, was stronger than Rumi, though Rumi accepted his guidance, even instructing that Qunawi should lead prayers at his funeral. The poetry of Masnavi and other works by Rumi, though profound, are more appropriate for those on the path of love and devotion and may be considered lacking from the perspective of the fully realised saints of God. Rumi, deeply in love with Shams, exemplifies the transformative power of love, while the saints, in contrast, operate from a different level of spiritual awareness.

The Necessity of Understanding Musical Modes for the Religious Scholar (Faqih)

A religious scholar (faqih), when issuing a legal ruling, must understand the modes of music in order to properly assess its permissibility. A philosopher, in addition to understanding these modes, must also be capable of executing them. A philosopher who struggles with the execution of music lacks completeness in practical wisdom. An academic or philosopher should not only understand musical modes, but also be able to effectively present them, infusing them with their own spirit and passion. A singer, though lacking in intellectual rigor compared to a scholar or philosopher, carries a heavier responsibility in this regard. They must embody the knowledge of music and its modes, much like someone trained in literature who is unable to properly apply grammatical rules would fail in their craft.

Thus, for a religious scholar, understanding the modes and sounds of music suffices, as they are tasked only with making rulings. However, a philosopher must not only understand these elements but also possess the ability to present them practically. The singer’s task is to capture and convey the joy and sorrow of life, spreading it to others and elevating their spirits.

Stages of Discovering the Musical Modalities

We stated that nature is the source of discovering musical systems. To uncover a system, three aspects must be considered: firstly, one must memorize the sounds of nature, analyze and dissect them, and become so skilled in this task that upon hearing a sound or melody, the mind can immediately recognize it, understanding whether the sound is from the Mahur mode or the Shushtari mode, for example.

Secondly, one must be able to reproduce this sound accurately, swiftly, and without hesitation when performing in the desired mode.

Thirdly, beyond memorization and precise execution, this knowledge must become second nature, and anyone who achieves this level of mastery becomes a specialist in acoustics and sound studies.

The Importance of Knowledge of Musical Modes for Jurists

Among the three stages mentioned, possessing the first stage is essential for a jurist. A jurist who intends to give rulings on music and singing must be familiar with sounds, melodies, and modes to a degree that allows them to comprehend the related narrations. They must know which mode a person is singing, whether the melody is sorrowful or uplifting. They must understand what Tarab (ecstasy) is so that they do not confuse sound, melody, singing, and ecstasy. For instance, the late Mucaddis Ardabili, due to his limited understanding of music, believed that sorrow devoid of Tarab or enjoyment is undesirable, whereas sorrow can indeed evoke Tarab. Sometimes, a person may even find pleasure in pain, as is the case with “therapeutic pain,” which has its supporters today.

A jurist can distinguish between the melodies of the people of debauchery, non-debauchery, those of amusement, and those that are non-amusement, only if they are knowledgeable in acoustics. Only then can they provide an accurate ruling. Without this knowledge, they will be unable to issue the correct judgment. For example, one cannot identify the music of a person indulging in debauchery merely by their appearance; rather, one must listen to their voice. It is from the sound that one can discern whether it belongs to a debauched person, even if the individual recites the Holy Qur’an and outwardly appears devout. In this regard, one must be familiar with melodies. One cannot deduce that a person’s voice is debauched just because they drink alcohol, as drinking alcohol is a debauched act but does not necessarily mean their singing is debauched. The identification of such matters requires specific reasoning, and an untidy appearance does not necessarily indicate the impermissibility of their voice, just as an outwardly polished appearance does not necessarily indicate its permissibility.

A jurist must, in order to deduce an accurate ruling, be familiar with the subject of sound and acoustics and have knowledge of musical modes.

Investigating the Modes to Reach a Ruling

As we mentioned, a jurist must be familiar with the modes and melodies to understand the subject of music. Each mode has its own distinctive Tarab. If a sound is closely tied to a mode, it is impossible for it not to evoke Tarab. If a sound does not evoke Tarab, it is either mixing modes or has confused time, place, or characteristics. When the conditions of the mode are maintained, it naturally produces Tarab and resonance, just as one cannot separate moisture from water.

With this in mind, one cannot say that merely the sounds or melodies of debauchery are forbidden, nor can one assert that their being of low social status or immoral nature makes them forbidden. This is because the melodies they sing, such as those in the Seh-gah, Chahargah, Mahur, Shushtari, or Hijaz modes, are all derived from nature, and we do not have a concept of “the melodies of the debauched” as a characteristic of voice or sound. Just as the first form of syllogism cannot be considered Islamic, this is a natural phenomenon derived from the study of the mind and the arrangement of thoughts. Similarly, the modes are natural, and we do not have a Mahur mode of debauchery or one of piety; all modes are one, derived from nature. Anything that deviates from the mode is incorrect and becomes Lahn (wrongful tone). Yes, the term Lahn refers to a tone that deviates from the proper rules, and a debauched person is one who has transgressed the boundaries of respect for the Creator. Therefore, a Lahn of debauchery refers to a tone that has transgressed the proper respect for God, but jurists do not derive this meaning from it. When it is said that music is impermissible, one must investigate whether it is the mode that is forbidden or the fragments, the sound, the voice, or the instruments. These are all derived from nature, just as the four forms of logic are natural. What, then, is it that is considered forbidden, and what is its essence?

Could one not, today, with an innovative mode, introduce Imam Reza (A.S.) to the world in such a way that it draws people to the shrine of the Holy Imam and makes them eager to visit Him? Can the holy religion of Islam grant us permission to use such a powerful tool for this purpose, or not? The discussion of music and singing in Islamic jurisprudence only takes its rightful place once all the modes, corners, and fragments are thoroughly examined, and the ruling for each is determined separately, rather than sweeping all of them under one general prohibition.

Different States and Distinct Rulings

Each sound, voice, Tarab, or sorrow has its own characteristics and consequences, and the permissibility or impermissibility is directly linked to these consequences. Not every sound in every situation induces Tarab; although Tarab can exist in any sound when its conditions are met, one cannot say absolutely that a sound is permissible for everyone or impermissible for everyone. A sound may be permissible for one person while forbidden for another. The individual’s characteristics, conditions, and emotional state play a clear role in the ruling on music and singing.

The motives of individuals vary. Just as sound has its own motives, and depending on the individual’s nature, it can have different motives. Thus, a sound may be motivating in one situation and not in another, Tarab-inducing in some circumstances and not in others.

Sound and Voice: A Material Phenomenon

The sound and voice used by musicians is a material phenomenon. Sound is corporeal; waves, beats, compositions, and rhythms are its components. In music and singing, there is no immaterial aspect.

Sound is always accompanied by waves and rhythms, yet it is separate from words and letters. Words and letters do not play a role in it; instead, sound relies on the emission of waves and the resonance they produce. Sound sometimes aligns with states of joy, sorrow, destruction, or confusion, and can evoke imaginary sensations. Sound is a material phenomenon, which is why its wave patterns cannot be separated. Of course, in this context, celestial voices, revelations, and spiritual sounds are not being discussed.

The Fourfold Relationships of Sound

Sound can have three inherent accompaniments: wave relationships, verbal, and emotional. There is a fourth relational accompaniment, which is circumstantial. Heat, cold, time, place, speed, slowness, strength, weakness, quality, and even color are circumstantial accompaniments. Sound in different contexts acquires different qualities. The sound of a voice in a garden differs from that in a bath, and the sound in a house is different from the sound in a street. These elements themselves are not sound but influence the listener, carrying the effect along with the sound.

Each of the four relationships mentioned—wave, verbal, emotional, and circumstantial—also exists within musical instruments. For instance, in the Tar or Tombak, the wave relationship induces movement, just as sound is produced from the throat and voice from an instrument. Each instrument is a unique craft and has its own language, which is expressed through waves.

Different Listener Experiences

Just as the performer and the instrument experience different states based on their various relationships, the listener does as well. Personal characteristics, motivations, age, health, and mental state all affect the listener’s perception, and each may require a different ruling. One type of music may be permissible for one person but impermissible for another; one mode may be appropriate in solitude but prohibited in public.

Sometimes, the ultimate purpose of listening to music or singing is imagination, where the soul rises and experiences transcendence or evokes the divine. In every case, it is the soul’s engagement that matters. The sound may enter the soul and either corrupt it or encourage virtuous behavior.

To fully understand the rulings on music and singing, one must recognize all the characteristics and nuances involved, rather than simplistically asserting that “all music is forbidden.” A jurist who claims music is impermissible must be familiar with the fourfold relationships of sound, music in private and public contexts, and other factors. Only then can they issue an accurate ruling.

The Expansive Nature of Sound

Sound is a composition of duration, rhythm, tone, proportion, height, depth, and words, all of which are the causes of sound’s manifestation. These elements blend unity and diversity. The unity is the sound itself, and the diversity lies in the rhythm, tone, and other characteristics it holds.

The active cause of sound and voice is love and art. Love is the efficient cause, and art is the instrumental cause. Sound, voice, and song are called “unspoken words” and “creating effects.”

The sound of a nightingale and a sparrow, though they may look quite similar, differ in their melodies. If one becomes familiar with their sounds, they will understand their “language,” akin to the Conference of the Birds in literature. As mentioned earlier, this understanding of the Conference of the Birds extends beyond simply recognizing the sounds of birds, encompassing all animals. Even natural phenomena such as wind, air, heat, and light have their own unique sounds. The sound of a rock striking glass differs from that of it striking iron. Humans, endowed with collective intellect and will, can develop their own acquired and scientific sounds and become familiar with all the varieties of sound, voice, and song. This is the task of a jurist, who, by recognizing these elements, can issue the correct legal ruling.

The Necessity of Understanding Subjects in Islamic Jurisprudence

When a jurist is knowledgeable about the subject matter, their jurisprudence becomes correct and dynamic, leading the community to become alive, active, moving forward, and developing. Islamic jurisprudence, under such circumstances, reflects its presence in every moment of people’s lives, and people become intertwined with it, experiencing the blessings of this divine knowledge in their lives, seeing it as a solution to their problems. In such a society, people can tangibly feel that it is the jurist who is their forerunner, and because the jurist knows the way well, they guide others. In this society, religious leaders and Islamic scholars, to the extent of their ability, have an understanding of the subject, and in certain cases, they acquire this understanding through consultation with the committee for determining subjects.

Islamic society must establish an institution for determining subjects so that jurists, given the broad scope of issues, can acquire a correct understanding of them. The method of the Infallibles (a.s.) was similar in governance; they themselves would perform ablution to teach others, or the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) would say: “Pray as you have seen me pray,” guiding the people directly without referring them to others or to common practice.

Religious seminaries should, by recognizing the subjects, propose drafts for the better administration of the country to the Islamic parliament and government, and design spiritual solutions and practices preferred by religion. After a trial period, officials should approve and implement these proposals.

Unfortunately, as of the writing of this text, more than twenty years after the establishment of the Islamic Republic, no body has been predicted in the country, especially in the Constitution, whose duty is to investigate religious foundations. This lack has resulted in the instability of many laws and religious and jurisprudential matters, and the educational curricula of schools and universities, along with the spiritual infrastructure of the country, lack the necessary stability. Although we witness changes every year in the working systems, social structures, and even textbooks, these efforts have, so far, been unsuccessful.

A jurist who refers the understanding of subjects to others is like a policeman telling people that there are thieves in the city and asking them to investigate the matter themselves. Everyone knows there are thieves in the city, but the important thing is that the police should know who they are and take steps to apprehend them. It cannot be said that understanding the subject is not the responsibility of the jurist. This view holds back the development of jurisprudence and prevents it from staying up to date, putting the responsibility of understanding subjects on someone who may not have the expertise in this field, whereas the common people will ultimately turn to the jurist for guidance. For example, if a bus makes a stop near a river and the water is murky, passengers (who represent the common people) may seek a religious scholar’s guidance on whether the water is impure or not. If the jurist deems it unnecessary to address this issue, they must rely on the people’s understanding of the matter.

This issue is not restricted to music but applies to all sections and chapters of ongoing jurisprudence. The claim that understanding subjects is not the responsibility of the jurist creates significant problems in the governance system of jurists and leads to the presentation of an inaccurate depiction of governance and Islamic rulings.

A jurisprudence that defers the understanding of subjects to the common people is individualistic, retreatist, and complacent. No jurist with this approach can govern or lead the society; instead, the common people, not the fatwa of the jurist, would govern. A retreatist, household-focused jurisprudence has no need for a living mujtahid because such jurisprudence lacks dynamism and fails to grow or develop. A retreatist jurist is sluggish, and the Islamic society following them would also fall into lethargy, with everyone passing on their responsibilities to others.

Ijtihad, which involves striving to obtain rulings, criteria, and determining the subject matter as much as possible, requires the jurist to exert their utmost effort. They must fully apply themselves to their task. Such a person cannot, by necessity, hold an executive position or, like a village headman, always attend gatherings for eulogies and memorial services. They must be deeply familiar with the subjects of jurisprudential matters. As we have discussed in the principles of jurisprudence, eliminating doubts about specific cases is the jurist’s responsibility. This is especially important in societies that are not modern. In such societies, people expect a jurist to lead the prayers of the deceased, officiate at marriage ceremonies, attend memorials, offer consultations on matters like dream interpretation, and sometimes even take on governmental and executive roles. However, if the jurist intends to dedicate themselves to discovering rulings on new issues, they do not have the time for these other tasks. The scholarly jurist, the researcher, and the specialist in religion is not a low-level itinerant. They must dedicate their life to this pursuit in order to master their craft and meet the challenge of “exerting their utmost effort.”

While this may not be a pleasant truth to admit, the one who exerts effort empties all that is in their stomach, just as the jurist must devote all their efforts to acquiring a ruling. With this explanation, it is unreasonable to expect a jurist to participate in public gatherings; after all, they are not designed for such tasks, as they have a crucial responsibility. The jurist, who is seen as a soldier of the Imam of Time (may Allah hasten his appearance), should always take on the most important tasks, not merely the important ones. It is clear that there is a difference between the most important tasks and merely important ones. Many people can perform important tasks, but only a few can manage the most important ones. Leading the prayers for the deceased, holding memorial services, and participating in public mourning ceremonies, though they may be significant religious acts, are tasks that many people can perform. However, understanding the essence of an issue, grasping all its aspects, and uncovering the truth of the matter is beyond the ability of most people, and this is where the jurist, with their profound intellect, stands as the mind of the community, not a figurehead for public gatherings. Religious seminaries should approach their work with deep intellectual consideration rather than through the perspective of an ordinary person, so that they can nurture the potential for growth of exceptional individuals within their ranks. Figures like Avicenna, Mulla Sadra, Sheikh Ansari, and Mirza Qummi always sought to please God, not to receive praise from others, as their greatest service to religion was their academic pursuit. It is said that Avicenna dedicated his time from the morning prayers until noon to teaching, and from noon until night, he devoted himself to research and study with boundless energy. Similarly, Sheikh Tusi, even while facing the threat of the Mongol conqueror Hulagu Khan, did not abandon his scholarly work and continued to lead even in times of calamity.

Of course, we do not intend to devalue the importance of other duties; rather, the point is that everyone should apply their best efforts in their own work and take responsibility for their tasks—whether they are jurists, religious scholars, or members of any other community. No one should take on another’s role inappropriately, nor should an important task be left to someone incapable of carrying it out properly. True discipline in work requires that each individual fully engage in their specific field of expertise. It is said that when the late Sheikh Juwahari’s son passed away, he did not announce it so as not to disrupt his class, and similarly, he wrote his monumental work “Javahir” despite facing great personal hardship.

The Necessity of Understanding the Rational Basis of Religious Rulings

Another aspect that is crucial for understanding the ruling on music and singing (ghina) is the understanding of the underlying rationale and basis of the ruling. The view that all religious rulings are purely devotional and that one should avoid deep reflection and careful consideration of the wisdom, rationale, and cause of the ruling leads to misunderstanding and insufficient understanding of religion. Giving undue importance to the outward form of a rule or the superficial appearance of evidence, while neglecting the underlying rationale and identification of the subject, is short-sighted and a failure to grasp the full depth of religious understanding.

Shia Islam, which places reason and rationality at the heart of its belief system, emphasizes the importance of understanding the rationale and basis behind every ruling. It maintains that no ruling, whether lawful or unlawful, is without a basis. It is not the case that a purely devotional ruling without any underlying rationale can exist in the religion. Simply following a ruling without consideration of the rationale and basis of that ruling can destroy the spirit of inquiry and healthy religious adherence. Ignorance of the rationale does not imply its absence. Of course, the Sunni approach, which often substitutes rational or speculative criteria for the reasoning behind a ruling, is not correct, and for this reason, their jurisprudence is not as dynamic or viable as that of the Shia.

It is appropriate for scholars to dedicate a chapter in their jurisprudential research to discussing the underlying rationale behind rulings. This would help Muslims develop a deeper understanding and more profound appreciation for the practice of religious obligations. It is said that contemporary society, in particular, is not willing to accept pure devotion without an understanding of the rationale behind the rulings and expects clear reasoning for any legal or theological assertion. Those who adopt a rational approach to religion do not easily abandon it. A notable example is the magicians of Pharaoh’s court who, after understanding the true nature of Moses’ miracles, converted to his faith with profound conviction. In contrast, many ordinary members of the Children of Israel, who did not adopt a rational approach to religion, reverted to idolatry during Moses’ brief absence.

Shia Islam, in its exploration of the rationale behind rulings, has a rich heritage, with

The Necessity of Recognising the Subject in Islamic Jurisprudence

When a jurist is well-versed in understanding the subject matter, their jurisprudence becomes accurate and dynamic, driving the society forward in a lively, active, and progressive direction. In such a society, the presence of Islamic jurisprudence becomes evident in every aspect of people’s lives. The public, in turn, becomes deeply attuned to the divine blessings of this knowledge, regarding it as the solution to their problems. In such a society, people can feel with certainty that the jurist is their leader, and because they know the path well, they become the guide for others. In this context, the religious leader and Islamic jurist, to the best of their abilities, have a clear understanding of the subject matter, and in cases where necessary, they consult the body responsible for identifying the subject, thereby acquiring a comprehensive understanding.

The Islamic society must establish an institution to determine these subjects, so that jurists, given the vastness of these issues, can obtain accurate knowledge. This is exactly how the Imams managed governance. They would perform acts like ablution themselves in order to teach others, or as the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) said: “Pray as you have seen me pray” (Sahih al-Bukhari), thus not deferring to the opinions of others or societal norms for instruction.

Academic institutions must use their knowledge of the subjects to propose administrative measures to the Islamic government, design spiritual and moral guidelines aligned with religious preferences, and government officials should test these suggestions through trial periods before formally adopting and implementing them.

Unfortunately, as of the writing of this text—over two decades since the establishment of the Islamic Republic—there still remains no framework within the country or specifically within the constitution to ensure the dedicated research into religious principles, leading to considerable instability in the country’s laws and religious issues. The curriculum in schools and universities, as well as the spiritual infrastructure of the country, lacks the necessary strength and coherence, despite annual adjustments to the workforce and social structure. This process, however, has been largely unsuccessful so far.

A jurist who delegates the identification of subject matters to others is akin to a police officer who tells the public, “There are thieves in the city, but it’s up to you to find them.” Everyone knows there are thieves, but the police are the ones who must identify them and take action. To claim that identifying the subject is not the jurist’s responsibility is to impede the development of jurisprudence and prevent it from remaining relevant. By placing this responsibility in the hands of individuals who may lack the necessary expertise, society still turns to the jurist for the final interpretation. For example, when a bus on a highway stops by a river and the water is muddy, passengers—who represent the general public—will ask the cleric whether the water is considered pure or impure according to Islamic jurisprudence. If the jurist does not consider answering this as part of their duty, they would have to seek the public’s opinion on the issue, even though it is the jurist who is the proper authority on such matters.

This argument is not limited to the issue of music, but applies to all areas of Islamic jurisprudence. The idea that determining the subject is not a jurist’s responsibility causes major problems in the Islamic governance system and prevents the proper interpretation of Islamic governance and rulings. A jurisprudence that delegates subject identification to the public is one that is individualistic, secluded, and detached from the collective governance of society. Such a jurist would be unable to manage or lead the community, for in this scenario, the public would be the de facto authority, not the jurist’s edict. A jurisprudence that avoids the challenge of identifying subjects lacks vitality and fails to produce the growth and development necessary for a thriving society. A secluded jurist leads the community to stagnation, and no one takes responsibility, passing the buck to others.

Ijtihad, understood as the effort to derive legal rulings, should include efforts to identify the correct subject matter. A jurist must put in their utmost effort—”Istifragh al-Was'”—to utilise all their abilities in this process. A jurist who focuses solely on such issues cannot afford to engage in mundane tasks or constantly attend social gatherings. Instead, they must specialise in the understanding of subject matters. As discussed in the advanced principles of jurisprudence, addressing the challenges of specific cases is a jurist’s responsibility, particularly in societies that are not modern. In such societies, the public expects a jurist not only to lead prayers and conduct weddings but also to manage the rituals of the community, such as attending memorial services or interpreting dreams. However, if the jurist is expected to deal with contemporary jurisprudential issues, they will have little time for other activities. A truly learned and dedicated jurist should invest their life in this pursuit, mastering the discipline in a way that makes their efforts worthy of the term “Istifragh al-Was’.”

Though it may seem harsh to say, when someone exerts effort, they expel everything they have. A jurist must similarly dedicate all their effort and energy to deriving a single ruling. Hence, one cannot expect a jurist to attend public gatherings, as their primary duty requires exclusive focus on jurisprudential issues. The jurist, being a servant of Imam Mahdi (may Allah hasten his appearance), must always focus on the most critical work, not merely important work. There is a difference between important tasks and the most important ones. Many people can perform tasks of importance, but few are capable of addressing the most vital matters. Leading prayers for the deceased or attending memorial services may be important, but anyone can perform these duties. However, delving into a complex issue, understanding all aspects, and uncovering the truth requires a depth of knowledge and understanding that not everyone can achieve. The jurist is the intellectual leader of the community, not someone merely seated at social gatherings. Academic institutions must cultivate a culture of deep thinking, not just populism, so as to prevent the decline of scholarly excellence.

Prominent scholars like Ibn Sina, Mulla Sadra, Sheikh Ansari, and Mirza Qumi were always dedicated to seeking the satisfaction of Allah, rather than to receiving praise from others. It is said that Ibn Sina conducted his research from the time after the dawn prayer until noon, and from the time after the afternoon prayer until evening, maintaining a rigorous schedule. Even in the face of adversity, like Sheikh Tusi during the Mongol invasion, he continued his scholarly work and led the Mongols in important matters.

This is not to diminish the value of other tasks, but rather to emphasise that everyone must dedicate their utmost effort to their area of responsibility. Whether one is a jurist or from another segment of society, they should maintain a high standard of commitment to their work. No one should undertake responsibilities that are beyond their capacity, and work should be carried out with true discipline. It is said that the late “Shaikh al-Jawahir” did not announce the death of his son so as not to disrupt his lectures. Similarly, despite immense personal challenges, he continued to write his famous work, “Jawaahir al-Kalaam.”

The Eclipse of Music Therapy

Religious scholars during the Mongol period faced significant hardships until the Safavid dynasty, which was Shia, took control of Iran. For the first time, they officially established Shia Islam across the entirety of Iran and pushed the Sunni population to the borders. The Safavids considered themselves “perfect guides” (murshid kamil), and one of their principles was that the view of the perfect guide was paramount. The Safavid kings turned their despotic rule into a religious one and sought to create a culture that reflected their religious, authoritarian values. Safavid notables who were religious were considered perfect guides, not Islamic scholars. However, it is important to acknowledge that under the banner of Shiaism, the Safavid kings did contribute significantly to the promotion of Shia culture. During this time, Shia scholars, after a thousand years of oppression, found the opportunity to revive the writings and traditions of the Imams and religious leaders with the support of the government. The number of scholars emerging in this era is also noteworthy.

Among the jurists from the 11th century onwards—starting from the Safavid era to the present—although there have been many prominent figures, three individuals primarily addressed the topic of music and its relation to Islamic law: the late Feiz Kashani, the late Mohaghegh Sabzevari, and the late Sheikh Ansari. Other scholars mostly followed their interpretations. The views of these eminent jurists will be discussed in the final section of this book, where we will explore the historical development of this issue from the perspective of jurists and critically analyze their approach to music.

The Safavid kings, especially Shah Abbas, regarded themselves as the loyal servant of Imam Ali, and Shah Abbas even named himself “The Dog of the Threshold of Ali, Abbas.” In this atmosphere, Shia culture found eloquent voices in figures like Mulla Sadra and Allama Majlesi. During this period, jurists were either hadith scholars, who dominated the seminaries, or usuli. Some scholars, like Feiz Kashani, discussed the permissibility of music, while others promoted its absolute prohibition. This issue was not free from extremism, with some even declaring the blowing of a leek stalk as haram and its performer cursed. A careful examination of their works reveals that none of their approaches adhered to a scientific standard. In obtaining a ruling on music—a complex subject—it is necessary to distinguish between correct and incorrect reasoning, taking into account the context, goal, agent, and the particularities of the time.

During the Safavid period, in addition to the disputes among jurists, Sufis also held significant sway. Sometimes, in Sufi gatherings supported by the court, both men and women would engage in mixed dancing and whirling. During the Safavid rule, it was the kings themselves who ruled in the name of religion, not the religion itself. Some of them, when drunk, would assert that they were the Shia king and the dog of Ali’s threshold, not the followers of scholars. They would claim that they listened to scholars sometimes but expected them to listen to them as well. It was during this period that Mulla Sadra wrote his book “Kasser al-Asnam al-Jahiliyyah” to counter such attitudes. The Safavid kings and courtiers, under the guise of mysticism and Sufism, trampled on God’s lawful acts and legitimized some unlawful practices.

Hadith scholars during this time firmly adhered to the absolute prohibition of music, taking a cautious approach. The Sufis also took an extreme approach, ignoring what was forbidden. The conflict between these two extreme factions during the Safavid era led to a situation where neither Mirdamad, Sheikh Baha’i, nor Mulla Sadra could make significant progress, as during conflicts, the more irrational party often emerged victorious. Even the king, at times, cautiously sought the opinions of both sides, resulting in the triumph of the outwardly pious scholars, who, with the support of the Safavid court, dominated the intellectual landscape. This dominance of the outwardly pious caused significant harm to Shia culture, leading to the marginalization of scholars who were well-versed in both rational and traditional sciences. Mulla Sadra and Feiz Kashani, scholars of this period, were exiled and marginalized.

The decline of religious scholars who were well-rounded in their knowledge led to the loss of music as a subject of study among them. From that point onwards, music came to be associated with the lower classes, and the names of scholars like Farabi and Ibn Sina were no longer mentioned in relation to it. With the rise of outwardly pious figures, subjects like music, astronomy, and the sciences were abandoned by the seminaries. This neglect continued until the arrival of Westerners in Iran, who established Dar al-Fonun (the polytechnic school), where music, like many other sciences, was removed from the educational programs of the few remaining scholars and became taught under foreign instructors.

During the reign of Fath Ali Shah Qajar, following the first and second wars between Iran and Tsarist Russia, the Russian ambassador brought with him a 30-member military band. Seeing this, Abbas Mirza, the crown prince, sought to establish a modern military band. Under Nasir al-Din Shah, military bands in the European style were established, replacing the traditional “naqareh-khaneh” (drum houses). The music curriculum at Dar al-Fonun lasted five years, and having completed the equivalent of the sixth-grade certificate was a prerequisite for admission. The primary goal of the music department was to train musicians and educators to manage musical groups.

The introduction of European-style music by the French instructor Monsieur Lormier, who didn’t know Persian, led to the creation of the first modern music theory book in Persian. Lormier composed a song called “Salam Be Shah” (“Salute to the King”), which remained popular until the reign of Mohammad Ali Shah. Lormier’s music, however, became associated with the lower classes and performers of debauched music. Among the students of his school, no scholars of any repute emerged. Music, once associated with intellectuals such as Farabi and Ibn Sina, was now relegated to being associated with the lower echelons of society.

In the Qajar period, and especially under the Pahlavi monarchy, music and singing took a regressive trajectory, mimicking the practices of the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties. The music of that era, exemplified by cinema and radio, had a profound and detrimental impact on Iranian culture, reinforcing corrupt values and leading to societal moral decay.

The Revival of Shia Music

Today, thanks to Islam and the Revolution, the situation is no longer as it once was. Poets and musicians, having found their Shia identity, are now creating works that resonate as the true voice of the people of Wilayah (guardianship). The Islamic Republic’s media, especially the Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting (IRIB), is among the most virtuous mass media outlets, significantly more modest compared to pre-Revolution Iran. However, vigilance is required to ensure that certain issues do not slip through the cracks.

For the correct distinction between permissible and impermissible music, a specialized department should be established within the seminary system. If the seminaries themselves are not aware of such matters, it is unrealistic to expect the media or the academic institutions to take the lead.

After the overthrow of the Pahlavi regime, it was the Islamic system and Islam itself that came to power, not personal beliefs or individual tastes. With the leadership of Imam Khomeini, Shia Islam was brought back from its exile, and IRIB became the true voice of Shia. It is to the great credit of Imam Khomeini, who forever indebted this suffering nation to him. The Islamic system, under Imam Khomeini, became the ruling authority, not just a government based on the name of religion.

Now, we must analyze music from an Islamic perspective, recognizing that its permissibility is situational rather than inherent. Music can be used for both good and evil purposes. If the Islamic system wishes to utilize music, it must carefully regulate its use, promote righteous works, and discourage harmful applications. The Islamic system should develop standards and support creators of Shia and Wilayah-themed music.

In this time, as Iranian society endures the aftermath of the eight-year war against global aggressors and faces heavy sanctions and widespread poverty, there is a pressing need for the system to define an appropriate framework for both sorrow and joy. This will allow for the proper distinction between what is permissible and what is forbidden, ensuring that both are respected in the process.

Through careful planning, the Islamic system can harness music as a means to enrich society and offer a more meaningful and spiritually uplifting experience.

Progressive Ijtihad vs. Isolationist Ijtihad

We are discussing the present era, in which, apart from the revolutionary movement of Imam Khomeini, unfortunately, most scholars have fallen behind the people and lost their pioneering role.

Ijtihad can be classified into two types: social and progressive ijtihad, and isolationist, regressive ijtihad. Isolationist ijtihad refers to a situation in which a jurist issues a fatwa without understanding the subject or the realities of society. Social ijtihad, on the other hand, is exemplified by the actions of the Holy Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), who called upon the people saying: “Come to me!” [42]; he was at the forefront of society, guiding and leading the people. If the Islamic system today intends to take the leadership of society and guide everyone, it needs social ijtihad. This ijtihad understands the realities of society and guides people through the intricacies of these matters. The leader of the community is one who answers the needs of the present and future society.

Of course, this process and the identification of the issues should be organised and managed by a relevant institution, which should be responsible for understanding the issues. In urgent circumstances, when this institution is unable to provide answers, religious leaders should be consulted. For centuries, jurists have insisted on the belief that “identifying the issues is not the jurist’s responsibility,” and I have extensively critiqued this proposition in the field of Usul al-Fiqh. Here, I will only mention that if a jurist fails to recognise the subject, how can they derive a ruling on it? Is not the jurist’s role one that is fundamentally linked to life itself, seeking to address the issues of society and live with the very topics of life? Legal research necessitates the understanding of the subject. For example, in the hadith, it is mentioned that “hadd” (punishment) is not problematic, but what exactly is “hadd,” and how was it perceived during the time of the Holy Prophet Muhammad (PBUH)? Is it related to a form of music? One who wishes to issue a fatwa or ruling must be knowledgeable about the subject to decide whether a particular type of music is halal or haram. How can someone claim to declare something halal or haram when they do not even understand what it is, especially today, when the governing system is Islamic, and the state is under the guardianship of the jurist, with the people requiring rulings on numerous issues? The responsibility of identifying external issues and issuing rulings on them lies with the jurist. The method that claims identifying external issues is not within the jurist’s jurisdiction is an unfounded approach that isolates religious thought and the social system of the faithful, pushing them to the periphery of homes and minds. Jurisprudence and a deep understanding of religion can only be achieved through engagement with the events of the time and by understanding the external issues, thereby providing answers to each minor issue. A detached approach to understanding the issues leads to an isolationist form of Islamic scholarship, because jurisprudence must flow within the dynamic context of human life to maintain its vitality and relevance. Only by recognising external issues and adopting a broad view of the present and future can we anticipate the needs of today and tomorrow, addressing the challenges that will arise.

Religious seminaries must be like universities and scientific institutions, having laboratories and workshops, allowing students to become familiar with contemporary topics closely, rather than spending their time solely on theoretical discussions about unseen matters.

If religious seminaries genuinely wish to become scientific and lead the community, they must provide their students with practical training. Simply speaking and relying on spiritual rewards for the afterlife is insufficient. Each course should have its own standard, measuring tools, and necessary resources, and students must familiarise themselves with the fundamental principles of every scientific text, particularly in the fields of Islamic jurisprudence and its topics.

It is true that today there are no scholars more virtuous, faithful, or truthful than the Shiite scholars, yet because they have fallen behind the people, societal affairs are not properly organised or managed. Religious authorities must lead the people with intelligence and prudence, avoiding both extremes of excess and neglect. In this regard, it is crucial to ensure that in ijtihad, one does not become trapped in unwarranted caution, nor should rigidness and fanaticism be used as a pretext for declaring something lawful or unlawful. Rather, ijtihad must follow the principles of Shari’ah.

Just as sometimes caution lies in refraining from caution, one cannot issue a ruling based solely on a weak chain of narration, consensus, or an opinion that is widely held but lacks proper sources and can be critiqued. In the case of music, which is a delicate issue, we must guard against the misleading temptations of Satan, so that something unlawful is not mistakenly attributed to being halal and religious.

A jurist must be sharp-minded, not feeling the need for unnecessary caution and must determine the ruling with complete insight. Where, despite their ijtihad, they cannot arrive at a ruling, they should simply say: “I do not know,” rather than resorting to caution. The existence of excessive and sometimes extreme caution has deprived Muslims of tools for propaganda, research, defense, movement, and attack, essential for confronting enemies. Likewise, if a type of music is haram, it must be declared as such. Sometimes, certain reciters and mourners train in musical scales that are suitable for lamentation and mourning, such as Shushtari, Afshari, Mahur, and Bayat Turk, and at times, they mimic the style of certain pre-Islamic singers, introducing haram music into mourning gatherings or the recitations of the Ahl al-Bayt. This is also a form of Satanic deception. Some reciters bring the style of singers with pre-Islamic inclinations into their recitations, and the media broadcasts such performances without discerning their legality or illegality. It is vital to ensure that God’s lawful rulings are not misrepresented as unlawful, as that would be a distortion of the faith. If God’s unlawful rulings are deemed lawful, it shows negligence and results in great harm. It is profoundly inappropriate for someone, in the name of commemorating Imam Hussein (AS), to declare something unlawful as lawful and ignore the prohibitions of religion. Some claim that singing and musical entertainment (ghina) are inherently false and haram, but if it is used for spiritual or religious purposes or in the recitation of the Qur’an, it is permissible. However, if singing and musical entertainment are inherently haram, their use in religious matters does not become exempt from sin; in fact, the sin becomes compounded. It is unacceptable to justify haram music under the guise of piety or devotion to Imam Hussein (AS). Such discussions should be considered superficial and based on personal biases rather than founded on rigorous academic and jurisprudential foundations.

In any case, scholarly investigation requires a structured approach, following scientific methodology. In every subject, one should not deviate from the process of ijtihad and the system of deriving legal rulings. Rulings should not be based on arbitrary preferences, personal biases, or incomplete reasoning. The methodical process of deriving legal rulings on music and singing will be explored in more depth in the subsequent sections, and the points raised in these introductory discussions are based on intellectual engagement, not hastily made judgments or preconceptions.

Chapter Two: Understanding Music and Related Matters

2.1. Understanding Ghinā (Singing)

In the field of music jurisprudence, one of the foundational and essential discussions is the need to understand the term “ghina” in order to avoid falling into fallacies. To understand this term, we will first examine the views of lexicographers. Although some linguists may not be the most reliable authority on this subject, as their reports are often based on unreliable sources, we believe that the Qur’an is the best source for understanding words. Based on this, we will explore the meaning of the word “ghina” from the perspective of the Qur’an.

One of the issues that researchers in religious studies may encounter is relying on “popular dictionaries” for specialized topics, which should not be considered authoritative in scholarly discussions. For example, to understand the meaning of “tarab” (ecstasy), one cannot rely solely on dictionaries but must examine the human soul to understand the true nature of this emotion and its characteristics.

A crucial aspect of lexical analysis is defining standards and developing methodologies for interpreting words in Persian and Arabic literature. This requires in-depth research and comprehensive analysis to ensure that each term is understood within its proper context. Until such methodology is firmly established, scholars from other disciplines, particularly in jurisprudence and exegesis, will find it difficult to resolve their challenges.

Furthermore, jurisprudential propositions on this matter are not always reliable, as many jurists have limited knowledge of music and musical instruments, leading their discussions to often adopt a simplistic and naive approach. Relying on consensus and widely accepted opinions in this field is not appropriate. We will present an overview of the viewpoints of jurists and highlight the fact that there is no unanimous agreement among religious scholars on this issue. Moreover, consensus is only a legal tool, and with abundant sources and transmissions available, there is no need to rely on consensus alone.

Lexical Views on Ghinā

To thoroughly explore the lexical meaning of “ghina,” we must review the important works of lexicographers. This will provide a basis for understanding the meaning of “ghina” and “qana” and will demonstrate the strength of the chosen interpretation.

In Mufradat al-Quran, Raghib states:

“Al-ghina refers to several types:

1. The absence of need, and this is only attributed to Allah Almighty, as mentioned in the verse: ‘You are the poor to Allah, and Allah is the Self-Sufficient, Praiseworthy’ (Quran 35:15).
2. The alleviation of need, as indicated in the verse: ‘And He found you poor and enriched you’ (Quran 93:8).
3. The abundance of possessions, according to the verse: ‘Let those who seek self-sufficiency refrain’ (Quran 24:33), and the phrase ‘Those who ask you for permission, they are wealthy’ (Quran 9:91), and ‘Indeed, Allah has heard the saying of those who said, “Indeed, Allah is poor, and we are wealthy.”‘ (Quran 3:181).”

Critique of Raghib’s Semantics

Raghib, before addressing the core meaning of a word, first delves into its usages, while the logical sequence of the discussion would suggest that the division and application of the word should occur after defining its meaning and establishing its boundary. This famous lexicographer, unable to define “ghina” (wealth or sufficiency), resorts to stating its necessary meaning.

He provides three meanings for “ghina”: absolute self-sufficiency, relative self-sufficiency, and abundance of outcomes or achievements.

The term “lack of need” (عدم الحاجات), as used in the meaning of “ghina,” is negative and involves the inclusion of “needs,” whereas “ghina” is both singular and positive and carries no negative connotation. “Lack of need” is a necessary meaning, and it refers to a person who, being wealthy, has no needs. This attribute is unique to God Almighty, and thus, the mentioned meaning has no real correspondence with “ghina.”

Raghib continues by citing the verse: “And Allah is the Self-Sufficient, the Praiseworthy” (Quran 35:15). However, his use of this verse as an example is flawed, as the verse does not directly suggest that God has no needs. The verse states, “You are the poor to Allah, and Allah is the Self-Sufficient, the Praiseworthy.” Raghib interprets “poor” in a positive sense, but when it comes to “ghina,” he falters by attributing a negative meaning. Unfortunately, this mistake is often seen in lexicons, where deviations from the true meaning lead to such errors.

Raghib further proposes another interpretation of “ghina” as having few needs, citing the verse: “And He found you impoverished and made you self-sufficient” (Quran 93:8). He interprets the verse as indicating a reduction in needs, yet it is questionable whether this interpretation can truly be derived from this verse. While Raghib attributes “ghina” to an abundance of internal wealth—“ghina al-nafs”—the verse does not seem to support the concept of reduced needs or increased wealth.

In his third interpretation of “ghina,” Raghib refers to the “abundance of wealth” and applies it to the various strata of society—from the wealthy to the honorable poor.

While “abundance” is a positive concept, the term “ghina” in its plural form, “ghanyat”, is used to describe the riches or outcomes that one can accumulate. Instead of focusing on the root meaning of “ghina,” Raghib delves into its derivatives and then moves on to discuss the term “mughanni” (the singer), which diverges from the true meaning.

It is noteworthy that Raghib maintains consistency in his interpretation of “ghina” across its usages. He does not define “ghina” as referring to sound, voice, or song, thus avoiding the confusion of assigning two different primary meanings to the same root word. A word’s root meaning should be consistent, just as in religious discourse where terms like “principles of faith” are not used arbitrarily. The root always remains singular, though it may have various branches.

Additionally, Raghib investigates the usage of “ghina” in the Quran, which serves as a valuable source for understanding the comprehensive Arabic lexicon.

However, the critique that arises against Raghib is his failure to define “ghina” properly. Instead of starting with its definition, he jumps into its divisions and uses without clarifying the original meaning. Furthermore, when discussing “mughanni” and singer, he does so without a firm grasp of the root meaning, leaving his interpretation without adequate justification.

Al-Misbah al-Munir

In this lexicon, “ghinna” is described as a sound emitted from the nose. The letter “nun” is considered one of the most pronounced letters in Arabic, and “ghanna” refers to someone speaking through their nostrils. Women who speak in this manner are called “ghannaa.”

Regarding the hadith “He is not of us who does not sing with the Quran,” al-Azhari translates this to mean that one who does not derive self-sufficiency from the Quran is not truly following the path. He dismisses the interpretation of “singing” as referring to musical voice. Later in the text, the meaning of “singing” in the context of the Quran is interpreted as “harmony in recitation” or “the beautification of the voice” during recitation.

Al-Azhari’s interpretation of the second hadith in which the Prophet advises beautifying the Quran with one’s voice is an important point, but it should be clarified that the hadith is not saying, “Beautify your voice with the Quran.” Instead, it means “Beautify the Quran with your voice”—signifying the importance of the quality of recitation.

The hadith “He who does not sing with the Quran is not of us” does not imply that one is a non-believer for not singing the Quran. Rather, it means that one is not reciting the Quran in the way it was meant to be recited, with proper elocution and intonation, as the Prophet and his family did.

Al-Maqayis al-Lugha

In this text, two primary meanings for “ghina” are presented: one refers to sufficiency, and the other to sound. However, this distinction is problematic because the word cannot have two distinct meanings. The term “ghina” either refers to wealth or sound, but it cannot encompass both without ambiguity. The text notes that “ghina” in the context of money means “sufficiency,” but when it is related to voice, it refers to sound, which is clearly a different usage of the term.

The argument that “ghina” could refer to both sufficiency and sound under different circumstances is misleading. It is important to remember that in linguistic studies, a single word cannot simultaneously have two meanings unless the context provides clear distinguishing factors. In cases where multiple meanings are attributed, it is necessary to identify specific contextual clues that differentiate these meanings.

Conclusion

Raghib’s approach to defining “ghina” in his lexicographic work reveals several issues related to his methodology, especially his failure to properly define the root meaning before diving into its various applications. His tendency to derive meanings from the usage of derivatives and his focus on unrelated contexts (such as “mughanni”) weakens his overall argument. The core critique is that a lexicographer must adhere to a consistent, foundational definition of a word before exploring its nuances, especially when dealing with terms that have deep religious or philosophical connotations.

Moreover, the reliance on secondary sources, such as hadith and commentaries, must not obscure the primary role of the Quran in defining the meanings of Arabic words, especially those used in theological contexts. In the case of “ghina,” it is evident that the term’s primary meaning—self-sufficiency or wealth—should be understood within the framework of Arabic linguistic traditions, not expanded arbitrarily to include unrelated meanings like sound or musical performance.

The Difference Between ‘Ghana’ and ‘Qana’ and the Song of the Rich

In this discussion, the following question is appropriate: why is the melodic voice referred to as “Ghana”? Can it be said that since musical gatherings, voices, and songs were in the hands of the wealthy, a beautiful voice came to be called “Ghana,” just as Sufis were named for their woolen garments, or those skilled in eloquence were called “Kalamī,” and philosophers who engaged in philosophical discourse were named “Masha”?

The affluent, living without hardship, also sang their melodies in a state of indulgence. However, it was the poor who had to bear the hardships of the wealthy, enduring their struggles, and whose music lacked the richness of the elites. Power, wealth, and politics were in the hands of the rich, and it was they who, in their state of intoxication, composed their songs.

In naming a specific type of song “Ghana,” and in distinguishing it from “Qana,” it must be stated that although both words suggest a sense of ability or capability, “Qana” implies a greater degree of permanence and is used in the context of immovable properties that cannot be transferred. Hence, it does not apply to a song, which is transitory and subject to change. “Ghana” was not called “Qana” because it is susceptible to fluctuations; the song involves specific mechanisms of change, such as variations in pitch, length, sharpness, and falsetto.

Based on the foregoing, it can be said that the term “Ghana” was chosen for a specific type of vocalization because a beautiful voice represents a type of power that is not fixed; it is dynamic, fluctuating, and is subject to change, unlike “Qana,” which refers to something more stable. Furthermore, musical performances of Ghana were typically held in the social gatherings of the wealthy and political elite, thus associating this term with such circles.

Ghana and Qana in the Qur’ān

As previously mentioned, the most important source for understanding the meanings of Arabic words is the Qur’ān. Therefore, when analyzing the meanings of terms related to “Ghana” and music, we rely solely on the Qur’ān, hadiths, and interpretations of scholars, without referencing the etymology offered by lexicographers, which may be incomplete or inaccurate, as seen in our discussion of Ghana.

Although the words “Ghana” and “Qana” appear multiple times in the hadiths, the Qur’ān only mentions them once, with the forms “Aghna” and “Aqna” (And that He is the One who enriches and makes the possession enduring) [Qur’ān, 53:48]. To understand the meaning of this verse, we must consider the preceding verses:

(And that to your Lord is the final return. And that He it is Who causes laughter and weeping. And that He it is Who causes death and gives life. And that He created the two kinds, male and female, from a sperm drop when it is emitted. And that He it is Who will bring forth the second creation. And that He it is Who enriches and makes the possession enduring.) [Qur’ān, 53:47-48]

“Aghna” means to enrich, while “Aqna” refers to making something secure and permanent. “Aghna” refers to the general concept of enrichment, including both movable and immovable wealth, while “Aqna” specifically refers to the lasting nature of property.

Some interpreters of this verse have suggested that “Aqna” means “to make poor.” They argued this based on the juxtaposition with terms like “laughter” versus “weeping” and “death” versus “life,” and by extension, they suggested that “Aghna” contrasts with “Aqna,” implying the latter means impoverishment. This interpretation, however, is incorrect. “Ghana” and “Qana” are two different but related concepts, both referring to a form of enrichment or ability, with the latter implying permanence.

In the Qur’ān, neither “Ghana” nor “Qana” are used to refer to sound or music. “Ghana” appears in the Qur’ān about seventy-two times, always referring to material wealth rather than sound or music. “Qana,” on the other hand, appears only once in the context previously discussed.

The Legal Definition of Ghana

Islamic scholars have defined Ghana as the “prolongation of the voice with a melodious and enjoyable quality.” This description focuses on the voice’s length and the pleasant resonance of the sound.

There is much disagreement among both linguists and scholars regarding the definition of Ghana and the concept of musical enjoyment. Scholars have generally relied on the interpretations of traditional lexicographers who were not specialists in music or sound theory. As a result, the interpretations of “Ghana” in Islamic jurisprudence are somewhat inconsistent. The term “Ghana” has typically been defined as the prolongation of the voice accompanied by a pleasurable, resonant quality. Some scholars added that the “pleasure” should be of a “worldly” nature or connected to frivolousness, while others insisted that it should be avoided if associated with the musical styles of the immoral.

It is worth noting that in Islamic legal discourse, the term “Ghana” is often narrowly defined, based on its etymology and its application in religious texts, but it is not considered to inherently signify “forbidden” or sinful activity unless it leads to moral transgression. As such, the presence of enjoyment and musicality in a voice or performance alone is not necessarily prohibited.

Ghana versus Music

Ghana refers specifically to the quality of a voice or song and its ability to produce a pleasing, harmonious sound. Music, by contrast, is broader, encompassing not only the voice but also instruments and other compositional elements, such as rhythm, tone, and pitch. Therefore, a musical performance that utilizes instruments like the violin, flute, or guitar constitutes music but is not automatically categorized as “Ghana.”

Thus, “Ghana” is a descriptor for a vocal performance with a musical quality, while music involves a wide range of sound-producing techniques, including instruments. Music can be either “Ghana” or non-“Ghana,” depending on whether the sounds it produces meet the criteria of harmony, balance, and pleasantness that define Ghana.

Conclusion

In conclusion, Ghana refers specifically to the musical quality of a voice, distinguished by harmony, resonance, and the capacity to evoke enjoyment. While this concept may overlap with music, it is not synonymous with all musical expressions. Ghana is a term that focuses on the vocal quality and its impact on the listener, with music being a broader category that encompasses both vocal and instrumental expressions.

As the art of music itself is complex and deeply intertwined with individual culture, environment, and training, the definition of what constitutes “Ghana” can vary. Thus, the categorization of sounds or performances as Ghana depends on various factors, including the context, the listener’s background, and the specific qualities of the sound being produced.

Tajweed

Tajweed is the articulation of each letter correctly, bringing out its due rights and characteristics with the required elements. Tajweed is one of the components of melody and is derived from it. “Jawdat” or Tajweed refers to the quality of the word, while “Ghana” refers to the quality of the voice and song. Therefore, Ghana takes precedence over Tajweed. A melodic voice can exist without Tajweed, but a word that is pronounced with Tajweed cannot lack Ghana (melody) and harmony.

Tajweed plays a significant role in improving the recitation of the Qur’an. For instance, observing the elongations (Madd) in the Qur’an, some of which are obligatory from the perspective of Tajweed, has a profound effect on enhancing the recitation. Surah Al-Fatiha is one of the most challenging Surahs in this respect. In order for its elongations to be pronounced correctly, it is necessary to incorporate melody into the recitation. The heavy elongations in Surah Al-Fatiha cannot be recited properly without melody; likewise, the Qur’an cannot be recited beautifully without melody.

Surah Al-Fatiha is referred to as “Al-Fatiha” because it is a “breaker of barriers” and a “opener” (of the heart). A person who recites it without melody cannot break barriers or open a path, and they resemble the people of the Torah, who recite in a mechanical manner, such as “Min Min” or “Waz Waz,” and refrain from raising their voices. This is because when they sing out loud, the flaws and criticisms of their recitations become apparent. This is similar to some individuals who, when unable to pronounce a word correctly in the Qur’an, manipulate it in such a way as to obscure any error in pronunciation.

Naghmah

Naghmah in the context of sound refers to the process of refining or making the sound more delicate and smooth. A beautiful sound, when accompanied by other qualities of beauty, acquires an additional finesse and is called “Naghmah.” The “Naghmah” of sound is distinct from the essence of sound, which refers to the sharpness or harshness of the voice.

Tarjīʿ

Tarjīʿ refers to rolling the voice in the throat and producing a trill, which is also known as “Tahrīr.” The “Ha-ha” sound in melody or trill brings meaning to the Tarjīʿ. Animals also have various forms of Tarjīʿ. The Tarjīʿ in animals is variable and can vary in strength and weakness. The nightingale and the locust, for example, are animals that produce a very beautiful and long Tarjīʿ. Even a donkey produces a loud Tarjīʿ and has a full-bodied sound.

Stimulation (Tahyīj)

A sound can be described as both intoxicating and trilling. In addition to its stimulating effect and trilling nature, sound can also cause arousal. Arousal through sound can be either lawful or unlawful. Stimulating someone to commit a sin is unlawful. Inciting a man or woman to sin, or arousing their sensual desire for an illicit relationship that crosses the boundaries of Shari’ah, is different from the type of sound that brings joy. Arousing someone with such a sound, whether it is produced by a man or a woman, is unlawful.

The relationship between the joy (Tarab) and stimulation (Tahyīj) of sound is logically a relationship of “general and specific,” meaning that a sound can neither be stimulating nor joyous, or it can be both stimulating and joyous. A sound may be joyous but not stimulating, or vice versa. Additionally, some sounds may evoke arousal, but without joy, and may only evoke images of body parts such as the eyes, eyebrows, chest, or arms, leading the listener towards sinful thoughts.

An important point to note in this discussion is that joy (Tarab) and arousal (Tahyīj) are attributes of the sound itself, not of the listener. In other words, Tarab and Tahyīj are intrinsic qualities of the sound, regardless of whether the listener enjoys or is affected by it. It should also be noted that when it is said that sound is “joyous,” it refers to a type of sound that naturally induces joy. If the conditions are not appropriate, some people may not feel joy from a beautiful sound. For example, someone who is ill may not be moved to joy by a beautiful voice, or a joyous sound in a confined space may cause discomfort to others.

Stimulating sound also follows a similar principle. It can have an internal factor that stems from the sound itself, or an external factor. A sound that does not inherently induce joy may still arouse the listener, for example, due to the beauty of the person producing it. A young couple, for instance, might be stirred simply by speaking to each other without any meaningful context. Hence, stimulation is not exclusive to the sound itself but can also result from the person producing the sound.

For example, a woman who is naked and making suggestive gestures, even if her voice is not beautiful, corrupts society, and such an act is impermissible. The same applies to a man in this context. This holds true even if the audience is not emotionally responsive or if they are unaffected by the sound, similar to how some people may be indifferent to beautiful sounds.

The potential for a sound to induce stimulation means that it cannot be categorically declared permissible or forbidden. Just as lies are judged by their context—whether they occur in a permissible or forbidden setting—stimulation through sound also varies according to time, place, and the individuals involved. For instance, stimulating a spouse may be permissible, whereas inciting someone to sin is forbidden. Care must be taken to avoid both carelessness and excessive strictness in this matter.

Stimulation through sound, if related to lawful matters and accompanied by permissible music and melody, is not problematic, just as for some people, having money, listening to certain speeches, or watching sporting events can be exhilarating. However, any stimulation related to something forbidden is unlawful. If something is unlawful, it remains forbidden, even if it does not induce stimulation, such as looking at or touching a person of the opposite sex inappropriately.

[1] — Nasirī Ethics, Jaavīdān Publications, p. 8.

[2] — Al-Shifā, The Mathematical Arts, 3rd Art of Mathematics, p. 3.

[3] — Ṭāhā / 14.

[4] — Ibn Sīnā says in this regard: “Then imitation is delightful, especially for humans, and when the melody imitates the traits of the North, it seems to the soul as if it is being shaped by them or by the qualities they contain. Vocal composition is highly delightful for these reasons.” Al-Shifā, The Mathematical Arts, 3rd Art, p. 8.

[5] — An-Naml / 18.

[6] — Az-Zumar / 3.

[7] — Al-Muzzammil / 20.

[8] — An-Naml / 62.

[9] — Bahr al-Anwār, vol. 58, p. 320.

[10] — Al-Muzzammil / 4.

[11] — Al-Mu’minūn / 108.

[12] — Al-Muzzammil / 20.

[13] — Al-Balad / 9.

[14] — Sahīfah Sajadiyah, p. 326, Duʿā of Arafah.

[15] — Shaykh Ṭūsī, Misbāḥ al-Mutahajjid, p. 631.

[16] — Al-Muzzammil / 4.

[17] — Rawandī, Al-Duʿawāt, p. 76.

[18] — Al-Muzzammil / 4.

[19] — Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, vol. 1, p. 162.

[20] — Shaykh Ṣadūq, Al-Khāṣṣāl, p. 397. Allāmah Amīnī, Al-Ghadīr, vol. 10, p. 80.

[21] — Muḥammad / 11.

[22] — Kanz al-ʿAmāl, vol. 8, p. 505.

[23] — An-Nahl / 49.

[24] — Al-Jumuʿah / 1.

[25] — Nūḥ / 14.

[26] — Mawlānā, Mathnawī Maʿnawī.

[27] — Al-Muzzammil / 7.

[28] — Shaykh Ṭūsī, Misbāḥ al-Mutahajjid, p. 448.

[29] — ʿAwālī al-Laʾālī, vol. 1, p. 20.

[30] — Al-Mulk / 3.

[31] — Al-Furqān / 73.

[32] — History of Iranian Music, vol. 1, pp. 139-143.

[33] — Mawlānā, Dīwān al-Shams, Ghazals.

[34] — Fakhr al-Dīn ʿIrāqī, Dīwān Ashʿār, Ghazals.

[35] — Bahūr al-Alḥān in the Science of Music and its Relation to Rhythms, Sepehr Publications, p. 321.

[36] — ʿĀmalī, Bahāʾ al-Dīn, Jamʿaʿ Abbasī, p. 2.

[37] — History of Iranian Music, pp. 433-434.

[38] — Al-Anfāl / 60.

[39] — Al-Anfāl / 60.

[40] — Al-Insān / 21.

[41] — Al-Anfāl / 60.

[42] — Āl ʿImrān / 167, Al-Anʿām / 151, Al-Mā’idah / 104.

[43] — Fāṭir / 15.

[44] — Duḥā / 8.

[45] — Raghib al-Isfahānī, Al-Mufradāt fī Ghārib al-Qur’ān, p. 366.

[46] — An-Nisāʾ / 6.

[47] — At-Tawbah / 93.

[48] — Āl ʿImrān / 181.

[49] — Al-Baqarah / 245.

[50] — Al-Baqarah / 273.

[51] — Al-Mufradāt fī Ghārib al-Qur’ān, Raghib al-Isfahānī, p. 366.

[52] — Fāṭir / 15.

[53] — Duḥā / 8.

[54] — Al-Miṣbāḥ al-Munīr, p. 623.

[55] — Ibid., p. 624.

[56] — Shaykh Ṣadūq, Maʿānī al-Akhbār, p. 279.

[57] — Ibid.

[58] — Maʿjam Maqāyīs al-Lughah, vol. 4, p. 398, edited by ʿAbd al-Salām Muḥammad Hārūn, Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah (Ismāʿīlīān) – six-volume edition.

[59] — Maʿjam Tahdhīb al-Lughah, Abī Manṣūr Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Azharī, vol. 3, p. 2073, Dār al-Maʿrifah, Beirut, Lebanon.

[60] — Lisān al-ʿArab, vol. 15, p. 136.

[61] — Jawharī, As-Ṣa

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